University  of  California  •  Berkeley 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

PRESENTED  BY 
PROF.  CHARLES  A.  KOFOID  AND 

MRS.  PRUDENCE  W.  KOFOID 
'51 


Biology 
UfiWy 


/ 

THE 


PHILOSOPHY 


O  F 


NATURAL  HISTORY, 


By     WILLIAM     SMELLIE, 

MEMBER   OF    THE   ANTIQUARIAN    AND    ROYAL 
SOCIETIES    OF    EDINBURGH. 


PHILADELPHIA: 
PRINTED  FOR  ROBERT   CAMPBELL,  BOOKSELLER 

NORTH-EAST  CORNER  OF  SECOND  AND  CHESNUT  STREET* 


MDCCXCI. 


iv  PREFACE. 

and  that  all  the  ufeful  and  amufing  views  arif- 
ing  from  the  different  fubje£ts  fhould  be  exhi- 
bited in  fuch  a  manner  as  to  convey  both  plea- 
fure  and  information. 

This  tafk  his  Lordfliip  was  pleafed  to  think 
me  not  altogether  unqualified  to  attempt.  The 
idea  flruck  me.  I  thought  that  a  work  of  this 
kind,  if  executed  even  with  moderate  abilities, 
might  excite  a  tafte  for  examining  the  various 
obje6ts  which  every  where  folicit  our  attention. 
A  habit  of  obfervation  refines  our  feelings.  It 
is  a  fource  of  interefling  amufement,  prevents 
idle  or  vicious  propenfities,  and  exalts  the  mind 
to  a  love  of  virtue  and  of  rational  entertain- 
ment. I  likewife  reflected,  that  men  of  learn- 
ing often  betray  an  ignorance  on  the  moft;  com- 
mon fubjefts  of  Natural  Hiftory,  which  it  is 
painful  to  remark. 

I  have  been  occafionally  employed,  fince  the 
period  which  I  have  mentioned,  in  collecting 
and  digefting  materials  from  the  moft  authentic 
fources.  Thefe  materials  I  have  interfperfed 
with  fuch  obfervations,  refleftions,  and  reafon- 
ings,  as  occurred  to  me  from  confidering  the 
multifarious  fubjefts  of  which  I  have  ventured 
to  treat.  I  knew  that  a  deliberate  perufal  of  the 
numerous  writers  from  Ariftotle  downwards, 
would  require  a  confiderable  portion  of  time. 
But  the  avocations  of  bufinefs,  and  the  tranflat- 
ing  of  a  work  fo  voluminous  as  the  Natural 
Hiflory  of  the  COUNT  DE  BUFFON,  rendered  my 
progrefs  much  flower  than  I  wifhed.  I  now, 
however,  with  much  diffidence,  fubmit  my  la- 
bours to  public  opinion.  An  examination  of  the 
Contents,  however,  will  convey  a  more  clear  idea 

of 


PREFACE.  v 

of  the  nature  of  the  work  than  a  multiplicity  of 
words.  But  I  thought  it  proper  to  prefix  a 
fhort  account  of  the  circumltances  and  motives 
which  induced  me  to  engage  in  an  undertaking 
fo  extenfive,  and  fo  difficult  to  perform  with 
tolerable  fuccefs. 

With  regard  to  the  manner  of  writing,  it  is 
perhaps  impoffible  for  a  North  Briton,  in  a  work 
of  any  extent,  to  avoid  what  are  called  Scotti- 
cifms.  But  I  have  endeavoured  to  be  every 
where  confpicuous,  and  to  (hun  every  fentiment 
or  expreffion  which  might  have  a  tendency  to 
injure  fociety,  or  to  hurt  the  feelings  of  indivi- 
duals. 

Indulgent  readers,  though  they  rnuft  perceive 
errors  and  imperfections,  will  naturally  make 
fome  allowance  for  the  variety  of  refearch,  and 
the  labour  of  condenfing  fo  much  matter  into 
fo  fmall  a  compafs.  He  is  a  bad  author,  it  has 
been  faid,  who  affords  neither  an  aphorifm  nor 
a  motto. 

I  cannot  refrain  from  mentioning  a  circum- 
ftance  which  has  often  made  me  uneafy.  The 
expe&ations  of  fome  friends  were  higher  than  I 
was  confcious  my  abilities  could  reach. 

Upon  the  whole,  the  general  defign  of  this 
publication  is,  to  convey  to  the  minds  of  youth, 
and  of  fuch  as  may  have  paid  little  attention  to 
the  ftudy  of  Nature,  a  fpecies  of  knowledge 
which  it  is  not  difficult  to  acquire.  This  know- 
ledge will  be  a  perpetual  and  inexhauftible 
fource  of  manly  pleasures ;  it  will  afford  inno- 
cent and  virtuous  amufement,  and  will  occupy 
agreeably  the  leifure  or  vacant  hours  of  life. 

C  O  N- 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER      I.  p 

Page, 

Of  the  diftinguiflring  Char  afters  of  Animals,  Plants,  and 
Minerals — The  analogies  between  the  plant  and  ani- 
mal, arifing  from  their  JlrucJure  and  organs,  their 
growth  and  nourifhment,  their  diffemination  and  decay  9 

CHAP/    II. 

Of  the  Organs  ^and  General  Structure  of  Animals — A 
Jhort  'view  of  the  external  and  internal  parts  of  the 
human  body — The  Jiruclure  of  Quadrupeds,  Birds, 
Fifhes,  and  InfecJs — How  far  peculiarities  of  ftruc- 
ture  are  connected  with  peculiarities  of  manners  and 
difpofitions  47 

CHAP.       III. 

Of  the  Refpiration  of  Animals — Air  necejjary  to  the  ex- 
iftence  of  all  animated  beings — The  various  modifica- 
tions of  the  organs  employed  by  Nature  for  the  tranf- 
mijfion  of  air  into  animal  bodies  -  i  oo 

CHAP.       IV. 

Of  the  Motions  of  Animals — The  caufes  and  inftru- 
ments  of  animal  motion — Animal  compared  with  me- 
chanical motion  125 

CHAP.       V. 

Of  the  Inftincls  of  Animals — Divifion  of  inftincls — Ex- 
amples of  pure  in/line! — Of  fuch  inftincls  as  can 
accommodate  themfehes  to  peculiar  circumftances  and 
fituations — Of  inftincls  improvable  by  obfervation  and 
experience — Some  remarks  and  conclujions  from  this 
view  of  inftintJ  X3^ 

CHAP. 


CONTENTS.  vii 

CHAP.      VI. 

Of  the  Senfes  in  General  *49 

Of  Smelling  15° 

Of  Tajiing  -  J54 

Of  Hearing  *56 

Of  Touch  162 

Of  Seeing  -  165 

CHAP.      VII. 

Of  the  Infancy  of  Animals — Somefpecies  continue  longer, 
and  others  Jhorter •,  in  this  Jlate — Different  modes  of 
managing  infants  in  different  countries  1 80 

CHAP.       VIII. 

Of  the  Food  of  Animals — Their  growth  and  expanjion 
— The  varieties  of  food  ufed  by  men  and  other  ani- 
mals— Effects  of  peculiar  foods  -  191 
CHAP.       IX. 

Of  the  Sexes  of  Animals — The  mental  and  corporeal 
differences  between  males  and  females — So?ne  animals 
endowed  with  both  f exes  in  the  fame  individual  215 

SECT.  II.     Of  thefexes  of  Plants  223 

CHAP.       X. 

Of  Puberty — Its  fymptoms  and  effects  in  different  animals  239 
CHAP.       XI. 

Of  Love — Its  exprejfions  and  effects  in  different  animals 
— Pairing — ~Seafons — Parental  affection  -  243 

CHAP.       XJL 

Of  the  Transformation  of  Animals — Transformation  of 
the  caterpillar    tribes — of  frogs,  &c. — All  animals 
undergo  changes  In  their  form  and  afpect — What  are 
the  probable  intentions  of  Nature  in  changing  forms     258 
CHAP.       XIII. 

Of  the  Habitations  of  Animals — Their  different  modes 
of  conftructing  abodes  for  warmth  and  protection  to 
themjeives  and  their  offspring — The  form  and  manner 
of  their  habitations  accommodated  to  the  exigencies  of 
the  animal  -  -  -  -  279 

CHAP. 


viii  CONTENTS. 

CHAP.       XIV. 

Of  the  Ho/lllltles  of  Animals  —Why  -animals  prey  upon 
one  another •,  but  feldom  on  their  ownfpecies — Advan- 
tages derived  from  this  feemingly-dejtruclive  Injlltu- 
tlon  of  Nature  -  -  -  -  336* 

CHAP.       XV. 

Of  the  Artifices  of  Animals  In  catching  their  prey  and  ef- 
c aping  their  enemies — Thefe  artifices  are,  In  general r, 
purely  inftindive ;  but  fame  animals  can  vary  their 
mode  of  attack  or  defence  according  to  particular  clr- 
cumflances  andfituatlms  .  358 

CHAP.       XVL 

Of  the  Society  of  Animals — What  are  the  motives  and 
advantages  of  It — Gregarious  tribes — Whether  man 
belongs  to  this  tribe — Society  of  two  kinds  372 

CHAP.       XVII. 

Of  the  Docility  of  Animals — How  far  Improveable  by 
culture — Effects  of  domefllcatlon  389 

CHAP.       XVIII. 

Of  the  Characters  and  Difpojttions  of  Animals — Rapa- 
cious— mild — timid — bold — generous  415 

C  H  A  P.      XIX. 

Of  the  Principle  of  Imitation  in  Animals — Is  the  nearejl 
approach  to  reafonlng  and  language  419 

C  H  A  P.      XX. 

Of  the  Migration  of  Animals — More  general  than  com- 
monly  believed — 'The  probable  motives  which  induce 
animals  to  migrate  422 

CHAP.      XXL 

Of  the  Longevity  and  Death  of  Animals — A  comparative 
view  of  animals  with  regard  to  the  duration  of  life 
and  its  confequenccs  -  449 

CHAP.      XXII. 

Of  the  Progrejfive  Scale  of  Animals— flops  at  man,  and 
why — ln  this  world,  it  appears  to  be  Impojjlble  that  a 
belngfuperior  to  man  could  exift — Reafonsfor  this  opinion  46  3 


THE 


PHILOSOPHY 


O  F 


NATURAL     HISTORY, 


CHAP.       I. 

Diftinguifhing  characters  of  Animals ,  Plants,  and  Minerals. 
— The  Analogies  between  the  plant  and  animal,  arifing 
from  their  ftrudure  and  organs,  their  growth  and  nourifh- 
ment,  their  diffemination  and  decay. 


NATURAL  Bodies,  when  viewed  as  they  have  a  re- 
lation to  man,  are  marked  with  characters  fo  appa- 
rent, that  they  efcape  not  the  obfervation  of  the  moft  un- 
enlightened minds.  In  a  fyftem  where  all  the  conftituent 
parti  have  a  reciprocal  dependence,  and  are  connected  by 
relations  fo  fubtile  as  to  elude  the  perception  of  animals, 
fuch  obvious  characters  were  indifpenfible.  Without- 
them,  neither  the  affairs  of  human  life,  nor  the  functions 
of  the  brute  creation,  could  be  carried  on.  Characters 
of  this  kind  are  accommodated  to  the  apprehenfion  of 
brutes,  and  of  vulgar  men. 

P  But, 


io  THEPHILOSOPHY 

But,  when  the  productions  of  nature  are  more  clofely 
examined ;  when  they  are  fcrutinized  by  the  eye  of  phi- 
lofophy,  the  number  of  their  relations  and  differences  is 
difcovered  to  be  almofl  infinite  ;  and  their  fhades  of  dif- 
crimination  are  often  fo  delicate,  that  no  fenfe  can  per- 
ceive them.  Nothing,  apparently,  is  more  eafy  than  to 
didinguifh  an  animal  from  a  plant ;  and  yet  the  proper 
didindion  has  puzzled  the  mod  acute  inquirers,  and, 
perhaps,  exceeds  the  limits  of  human  capacity. 

'  A  plant,'  fays  Jungius,  '  is  a  living,  but  not  ifentient 
c  body,  which  is  fixed  in  a  determined  place,  and  grows, 
c  increases  in  fize,  and  propagates  its  fpeciesV  In  this 
definition,  living  powers  are  afcribed  to  vegetables ;  but 
they  are  denied  the  faculty  of  fenfation.  Life,  without 
fome  degree  of  fenfation,  is  an  incomprehenfible  idea. 
An  animal  limited  to  the  fenfe  of  feeling  alone,  is  the 
lowed  conception  we  can  form  of  life.  Deprive  this  be- 
ing of  the  only  fenfe  it  poiTeiTes,  and,  though  its  figure 
mould  remain,  we  would  indantly  conclude  it  to  be  as  in- 
animate as  a  done.  The  life  attributed  to  plants,  feems 
.to  be  nothing  more  than  an  analogical  deduction  from 
their  growth,  nutrition,  continuation  of  their  ipecies,  and 
fimilar  circumftances. 

Ludwig  defines  vegetables  to  be  c  Natural  bodies,  al- 
'  ways  endowed  with  the  fame  form,  but  deprived  of  the 
c  power  of  local  motionf.'  Every  branch  of  this  defini- 
tion is,  with  equal  propriety,  applicable  to  precious  dones, 
falts,  and  fome  animals  ;  and,  therefore,  requires  no^far- 
ther  attention. 

Sir  Charles  Linnaeus,  in  his  Fundamenta  Botanica,  in- 
tends to  difcriminate  the  three  kingdoms  of  Nature  in  two 
lines.  '  Stones,'  fays  he,  *  grow  ;  vegetables  grow,  and 
6  live ;  animals  grow,  live,  and  feel  §:'  This  is  an  af- 
femblage  of  words,  the  meaning  of  which  is  entirely 
perverted.  The  idea  of  growth  implies  nutrition  and  ex- 
panfion  by  the  intervention  of  organs.  The  magnitude  of 
dones  may  be  augmented  by  an  accretion  of  new  matter  ; 
but,  this  is  not  growth,  or  expanfion  of  parts.  The  fe- 

cond 

*  Rail  Hid.  Plant,  p.  i.     S.  t  Ludwig,   Phil.  Bot.  p.  1      S. 

Fund.  Bot.        .     S. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  n 

cond  definition,  c  That  vegetables  gro\v  and  live?  is  e- 
qually  inaccurate.     Inftead  of  proving  the  life  of  plants, 
Linnaeus  takes  it  for  granted,  and  makes  it  the  characte- 
riflic  between  vegetables  and  brute  matter.     The  third, 
*  That  animals  grow,  live,  and/tW,'  is  not  lefs  exception- 
able.    Growth,  life,  and  mere  feniation,  convey  the  moil 
ignoble  notions  of  animated  beings.    From  this  definition, 
we  would  be  led  to  imagine,  that  Linnasus  meant  to  de- 
fcribe  the  condition  of  a  polypus,  or  an  oyfter.     All  ani- 
mals, it  is  true,  grow,  live,  and  feel  :  But,  thefe  are  only 
the  paffive  properties  of  animals.    The  definition  includes 
none  of  thofe  inftinctive,  intellectual,  and  active  powers 
which  exalt  the  animal  above  the  vegetable,  and  fo  emi- 
nently diftinguifh  the  different  tribes  from  each  other. 

Thefe  and  many  other  abortive  attempts  have  been 
made  to  afcertain  the  precife  boundaries  between  the 
animal  and  vegetable.  Definitions  have  been  the  perpe- 
tual aim  of  moft  writers  on  this  fubject.  But,  definitions, 
when  applied  to  natural  objects,  muft  always  be  vague 
and  eluiory.  We  know  not  the  principle  of  animal  life. 
We  are  equally  ignorant  of  the  efiential  caufe  of  vege- 
table exiitence.  It  is  vain,  therefore,  to  dream  of  being 
able  to  define  what  we  never  can  know.  We  may,  how- 
ever, difcover  fome  qualities  common  to  the  animal  as 
well  as  to  the  vegetable. 

Senfation,  motion,  and  ftru&ure  of  parts,  give  animals 
a  more  extenfive  range  in  their  connexion  with  external 
objects.  A  certain  portion  of  intellect,  joined  to  the  vital 
principle,  feem  to  be  the  mod  diflinguifhing  properties  of 
animals,  and  to  conftitute  their  effence,  or  being.  Ani- 
mals will,  determine,  act,  and  have  a  communication  with 
diftant  objects  by  their  fenfes.  They  have  the  laws  of 
nature,  in  fome  meafure,  at  command.  They  protect 
themfelves  from  injury  by  employing  force,  fwiftnefs,  ad- 
drefs,  and  cunning.  But,  vegetables  remain  fixed  in  the 
fame  place,  and  are  fubject  to  every  thing  that  moves. 
Animals  eat  at  intervals  ;  their  food  requires  time  for 
digeftion,  and  to  anfwer  the  complicated  purpofes  of  fe- 
cretion  and  nutrition.  The  ftructure  of  plants  is  more 
fimple :  They  receive  perpetual  nouriflimeut  without  in- 
jury. 


12  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

jury.  Animals  fearch  for,  and  felect,  particular  kinds  of 
food.  But,  plants  muft  receive  whatever  is  brought  to 
them  by  the  different  elements.  Animals  exift  on  the 
furface  and  in  the  interior  parts  of  the  earth,  in  the  air, 
in  water,  in  the  bodies  of  men  and  other  animals,  in  the 
internal  parts  of  plants,  and  even  in  (tones.  But,  if  we 
except  a  few  aquatics,  plants  are  fixed  to  the  earth  by 
roots. 

All  animals,  it  has  been  affirmed,  have  a  heart,  or  par- 
ticular fountain,  for  propelling  and  diftributing  their  fluids 
to  the  different  parts  of  their  bodies :  But,  caterpillars, 
and  niany  other  infects,  have  no  fuch  general  receptacle  *. 

The  loco-motive  faculty  has  been  confidered  as  peculiar 
to  animals.  But,  even  this  character  is  extremely  fufpi- 
cious.  Oyfters,  fea-nettles,  the  gall-infects,  and  a  variety 
or  other  animals,  can  hardly  be  faid  to  enjoy  the  power  of 
local  motion.  Many  fpecies  remain  forever  fixed  to  the 
rocks  on  which  they  are  produced,  and  have  no  motion 
but  that:  of  extending  or  contracting  their  bodies.  Be- 
fides,  examples  of  different  kinds  of  motion  are  difcover- 
able  in  the  vegetable  kingdom.  When  the  roots  of  a 
tree  meet  with  a  done,  or  any  other  obilruction  to  their 
motion,  in  order  to  avoid  it,  they  change  their  former 
direction.  They  turn  from  barren  to  fertile  earth,  which 
indicates  fcnifthing  analogous  to  a  felection  of  food. 
Like  the  polypus,  plants,  when  confined  in  a  houfe,  uni- 
formly bend  toward  the  window,  or  aperture,  through 
which  the  rays  of  light  are  introduced. 

The  fenfi live  plant  poffeffes  the  faculty  of  motion  in  an 
eminent  degree.  The  flighted  touch  makes  its  leaves  fud- 
denly  fhrink,  and,  together  with  the  branch,  bend  down 
toward  the  earth.  But,  the  moving  plant,  or  hedyfarum 
movens  -(-,  of  which  there  are  fpecimens  in  the  botanic 
garden  of  Edinburgh,  furnifhes  the  mod  aftonifhing  exam- 
ple of  vegetable  motion.  It  is  a  native  of  the  Earl-Indies. 
Its  movements  are  not  excited  by  the  contact  of  external 
bodies,  but  folely  by  the  influence  of  the  fun's  rays.  The 
.motions  of  this  plant  are  confined  to  the  leaves,  which  are 

fapported 

*  The  fubjfct.  of  this  paragraph  fhall  be  examined  in  another  place, 
f  The  Hedyfarum  gyians  of  .Linnaeus. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTOkY.  13 

fupported  by  long  flexible  foot-ftalks.  When  the  fun 
fhines,  the  leaves  move  brifldy  in  every  direction.  Their 
general  motion,  however,  is  upward  and  downward  :  But, 
they  not  ^infrequently  turn  almofc  round  ;  and,  then,  their 
foot-ftalks  are  evidently  twifted.  Thefe  motions  go  on  in- 
ceflantly,  as  long  as  the  heat  of  the  fun  continues :  But, 
they  ceafe  during  the  night^,  and  when  the  weather  is  cold 
and  cloudy.  Our  wonder  is  excited  by  the  rapidity  and 
conftancy  of  the  movements  peculiar  to  this  plant.  The 
frequency,  however,  of  fimilar  motions  in  other  plants, 
renders  it  probable  that  the  leaves  of  all  vegetables  move, 
or  are  agitated  by  the  rays  of  the  fun,  though  many  of 
thefe  movements  are  too  flow  for  our  perception. 

The  American  plant  called  dionaa  mufcipula*,  or  Venus' s 
fly-trap,  affords  another  inftance  of  rapid  vegetable  moti- 
on. Its  leaves  are  jointed,  and  furnifhed  with  two  rows 
of  flrong  prickles.  Their  furfaces  are  covered  with  a 
number  of  minute  glands,  which  fecrete  a  fweet  liquor, 
and  allure  the  approach  of  flies.  When  thefe  parts  are 
touched  by  the  legs  of  a  fly,  the  two  lobes  of  the  leaf 
inftantly  rife  up,  the  rows  of  prickles  lock  themfelves  frft 
together,  and  Iqueeze  the  unwary  animal  to  death.  IF  a 
ilraw  or  a  pin  be  introduced  between  the  lobes,  the  fame 
motions  are  excited. | 

When  a  feed  is  fown  in  a  reverfed  pofition,  the  young 
root  turns  downward  to  enter  the  earth,  and  the  fiem 
bends  upward  into  the  air.  Confine  a  young  (tern  to  an 
inclined  pofition,  and  its  extremity  will  foon  aflfume  its 
former  perpendicular  direction.  Twift  the  branches  of 
any  tree  in  fuch  a  manner  that  the  inferior  furfaces  of  the 
leaves  are  turned  toward  the  iky,  and  you  will,  in  a  fhort 
time,  perceive  that  all  thefe  leaves  refume  their  original 
pofition.  Thefe  motions  are  performed  fooner  or  later, 
in  proportion  to  the  degree  of  heat,  and  the  flexibility  of 
the  leaves.  Many  leaves,  as  thofe  of  the  mallow  f ,  follow 
the  courfe  of  the  fun.  In  the  morning,  their  fuperior  fur- 
faces  are  prefented  to  the  eafl  ;  at  noon,  they  regard  the 

fouth  ; 

*  This  fingular  and  beautiful  vegetable  is  a  native  of  the  bogs,  or  marfiiy  fitu- 
alions.   of  Carolina. 
t  M-Jva. 


i4  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

fouth ;  and,  when  the  fun  fets,  they  are  dire&ed  to  the 
weft.  During  the  night,  or  in  rainy  weather,  thefe  leaves 
are  horizontal ;  and  their  inferior  furfaces  are  turned  to- 
ward the  earth*. 

What  has  been  denominated  the  Sleep  of  Plants,  affords 
an  inflance  of  another  fpecies  of  vegetable  motion.  The 
leaves  of  many  plants  fold  up  during  the  night ;  but,  at 
the  approach  of  the  fun,  they  expand  with  renewed  vi- 
gour. The  common  appearances  of  moft  vegetables  are 
fo  changed  in  the  night,  that  it  is  difficult  to  recognife  the 
different  kinds,  even  by  the  afliftance  of  light. 

The  modes  of  folding  in  the  leaves,  or  of  fleeping,  are 
extremely  various.  But,  it  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  they 
all  difpofe  themfelves  fo  as  to  give  the  beft  protection  to 
the  young  Hems,  flowers,  buds,  or  fruit.  The  leaves  of  the 
tamarind-tree  f  contract  round  the  tender  fruit,  and  protect 
it  from  the  nocturnal  cold.  The  caflja  or  fenna,  the  gly- 
cine,  and  many  of  the  papilionaceous  plants,  contract  their 
leaves  in  a  fimilar  manner.  The  leaves  of  the  chickweed  ||, 
of  the  afclepias,  atriplex§,  &c.  are  difpofed  in  oppofite 
pairs.  During  the  night,  they  rife  perpendicularly,  and 
jtHn  fo  clofe  at  the  top,  that  they  conceal  the  flowers. 
The  leaves  of  the  fida^[  or  althaea  Theophrafli,  of  the 
ayenia,  and  cenothera  **,  are  placed  alternately.  Though 
horizontal,  or  even  depending,  during  the  day,  at  the 
approach  of  night  they  rife,  embrace  the  item,  and  pro- 
tect the  tender  flowers.  The  leaves  of  the  folanum  f  f ,  or 
nightfhade,  are  horizontal  during  the  day ;  but,  in  the 
night,  they  rife,  and  cover  the  flowers.  The  Egyptian 
vetch  HI!  erects  its  leaves  during  the  night,  in  fuch  a  man- 
ner that  each  pair  feem  to  be  one  leaf  only.  The  leaves  of 
the  white  lupine  §§,  in  the  ftate  of  fleep,  hang  down,  and 
protect  the  young  buds  from  being  injured  by  the  nodtur- 
nal  air. 

Thefe 

*On  thefc  fubjefts,  the  beautiful  experiments  of  that  enlightened  philofoperMr. 
Bonnet,  defer  veto  be  confulted.  See  his  Rccherchesfur  L'ufage  desfeinlles  dans  les 
plantes,  &c.  a  work  in  every  page  of  which  the  genius  and  the  learning  of  its  au- 
thor are  eminently  confpicuous. 

t  Tamarindus  'indica.  \\  Alfme  media.  ^  Atriplex  hortenfa. 

?  Sida  Abuti'on.  **  CEnotheia  moUiffima,    It  Solanum 

$|]  Abrus  prccatorins.  (^  Lupinus  albus. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  15 

Thefe  and  fimilar  motions  are  not  peculiar  to  the  leaves 
of  plants.  The  flowers  have  alfo  the  power  of  moving. 
During  the  night,  many  of  them  are  inclofed  in  their  ca- 
lixes.  Some  flowers,  as  thofe  of  the  German  fpurge  *, 
geranium  flriatum,  and  common  whitlow-grafs  f  9  when 
aileep,  hang  their  mouths  toward  the  earth,  to  prevent  the 
noxious  effects  of  rain,  or  dew. 

The  caufe  of  thefe  movements  which  constitute  the 
fleep  of  plants,  has  been  afcribed  to  the  prefence  or  ab- 
fence  of  the  fun's  rays.  In  fome  of  the  examples  I  have 
given,  the  motions  produced  are  evidently  excited  by 
heat.  But,  plants  kept  in  a  hot-houfe,  where  an  equal 
degree  of  heat  is  preferved  both  day  and  night,  fail  not 
to  contract  their  leaves,  or  to  fleep,  in  the  fame  manner 
as  when  they  are  expofed  to  the  open  air.  This  fact 
evinces,  that  the  fleep  of  plants  is  rather  owing  to  a  pe- 
culiar law,  than  to  a  quicker  or  flower  motion  of  their 
juices. 

A  ilomach  and  brain  have  been  reckoned  eflential  cha- 
raderiftics  of  the  animal  ;  and  plants  are  faid  to  pofiefs 
nothing  analogous  to  thefe  organs.  But,  the  polypus 
has  no  ftomach  ;  or  rather,  like  vegetables,  its  whole  bo- 
dy may  be  confidered  as  a  ftomach.  Its  internal  cavity 
contains  no  vifcera  ;  and,  when  this  animal  is  turned  out- 
fide  in,  it  ftill  continues  to  live,  and  to  digeft  its  food,  in 
the  fame  manner  as  if  it  had  received  no  injury.  The 
mode  by  which  plants  are  nouriihed  is  extremely  analo- 
gous. They  imbibe  food  by  the  roots,  the  trunk,  the 
branches,  the  leaves,  and  the  flowers.  Inftead,  there- 
fore, of  having  no  ftomach,  their  whole  Structure  is  flo- 
mach.  With  regard  to  the  brain,  the  polypus,  and  many 
other  infects,  are  deprived  of  that  organ.  Hence,  neither 
ftomach  nor  brain  are  eflential  characters  which  difcrimi- 
nate  the  animal  from  the  vegetable. 

But,  all  animals  are  endowed  with  fenfation,  or  at  leaft 
with  irritability,  which  laft  has  been  confidered  as  a  dif- 
tin&ive  character  of  animal  life.  Senfation  implies  a  dif- 
tinct  perception  of  pleafure,  and  pain.  We  infer  the  ex- 
iftence  of  fenfation  in  organized  bodies,  when  we  per- 
v.  ceive 

*  Euphorbia.  t  Draba  verna  and  alpina. 


16  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

ceive  that  they  have  organs  fimilar  to  our  own,  or  when 
they  act,  in  certain  circumftances,  in  the  fame  manner  as 
we  act.  If  an  organized  being  has  eyes,  ears,  and  a  nofe, 
we  naturally  conclude  that  it  enjoys  the  fame  fenfations  as 
thefe  organs  convey  to  us.  If  we  fee  another  being,  whole 
flructure  exhibits  nothing  analogous  to  our  organs  of  fen- 
fation,  contracting  with  rapidity  when  touched,  directing 
its  body  uniformly  to  the  light,  feizing  fmall  infects  with 
tentacula.)  or  a  kind  of  arms,  and  conveying  them  into  an 
aperture  placed  at  its  anterior  end,  we  hefitate  not  to  pro- 
nounce that  it  is  animated.  Cut  off  its  arms.,  deprive  it 
of  the  faculty  of  contracting  and  extending  its  body,  the 
nature  of  this  being  will  not  be  changed  ;  but  we  will  be 
unable  to  determine  whether  it  poffeffes  any  portion  of 
life.  This  is  nearly  the  condition  of  the  fmall  factions  of 
a  polypus,  before  their  heads  begin  to  grow.  The  wheel- 
Animal,  the  eels  in  blighted  wheat,  and  the  fnails  record- 
ed in  the  Philofophical  Tranfactions,  afford  inftances  of 
every  appearance  of  fenfation,  or  even  of  irritability,  be- 
ing fufpended,  not  for  months,  but  for  fever al  years,  and 
yet  the  life  of  thefe  animals  is  not  extinguished  ;  for,  they 
uniformly  revive  upon  a  proper  application  of  moiiture. 

Thefe  and  fimilar  facts  mow,  that  we  are  entirely  igno- 
rant of  the  eifence  and  properties  of  life.  What  life  really 
is,  feems  too  fubtile  for  our  underftanding  to  conceive, 
or  our  fenfes  to  difcern.  If  we  have  no  other  criterions 
to  diftinguilh  life,  than  motion,  fenfation,  and  irritability, 
the  animals  juft  mentioned  continued  for  years  in  a  ftate 
which  every  man  would  pronounce  to  have  been  perfectly 
dead.  It  is  poffible,  therefore,  that  life  may  exift  in  many 
bodies  which  are  commonly  thought  to  be  as  inanimate 
as  ftones.  Hence,  it  would  be  rafh  to  exclude  plants  from 
every  fpecies  of  fenfation.  The  degrees  of  fenfation  de- 
creaie  imperceptibly  from  man  to  the  fea-nettle,  gall-in- 
fects, and  what  are  called  the  mod  imperfect  animals. 
Every  vegetable,  as  well  as  the  fenfitive  plant,  (brinks 
when  wounded.  But,  in  mod  of  them,  the  motion  is  too 
flow  for  cur  perception.  When  trees  grow  near  a  ditch, 
the  roots  which  proceed  in  a  direction  that  would  necef- 
farily  biing  them  into  the  open  air,  inflead  of  continuing 

this 


,      OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  17 

this  noxious  progrefs,  fink  below  the  level  of  the  ditch, 
then  fhoot  acrofs,  and  regain  the  foil  on  the  oppofite  fide. 
When  a  root  is  uncovered,  without  expoling  it  to  much 
heat,  and  a  wet  fpunge  is  placed  near  it,  but  in  a  different 
direction  from  that  in  which  the  root  is  proceeding,  in  a 
fhort  time  the  root  turns  towards  the  fpunge.  In  this  man- 
ner the  direction  of  roots  may  be  varied  at  pleafure.  All 
plants  make  the  ftrongeft  efforts,  by  inclining,  turning, 
and  even  twifting  their  (terns  and  branches,  to  efcape  from 
darknefs  and  {hade,  and  to  procure  the  influences  of  the 
fun.  Place  a  wet  fpunge  under  the  leaves  of  a  tree,  they 
foon  bend  downward,  and  endeavour  to  apply  iheir  infe- 
rior furfaces  to  the  fpunge.  If  a  velfel  of  water  be  placed 
within  fix  inches  of  a  growing  cucumber,  in  twenty-four 
hours  the  cucumber  alters  the  direction  of  its  branches, 
bends  either  to  the  right  or  left,  and  never  (lops  till  it 
comes  into  contact  with  the  water.  When  a  pole  is  placed 
at  a  confiderable  diflance  from  an  unfupported  vine,  the 
branches  of  which  are  proceeding  in  a  contrary  dire&ion 
from  that  of  the  pole,  in  a  fhort  time,  it  alters  its  courfe, 
and  flops  not  till  it  clings  around  the  pole. 

Facts  of  this  kind  excite  our  wonder ;  but,  they  by  no 
means  prove  that  vegetables  live,  or  that  they  are  endowed 
with  fenfation,  which  implies  a  diftinct  perception  of  plea- 
fure, and  pain. 

There  is  an  inferior  fpecies  of  fenfation,  which  is  dif- 
tinguifhed  by  the  term  irritability.  This  term  denotes  that 
power  by  which  mufcular  fibres,  even  after  they  are  de- 
tached from  the  body,  contract  upon  the  application  of  any 
ftimulating  fubftance,  whether  folid  or  fluid.  The  heart 
of  a  frog,  when  pricked  with  the  point  of  a  pin,  conti- 
nues to  beat,  or  to  contract  and  dilate,  for  feveral  hours 
after  it  has  been  cut  out  of  the  animal's  body.  The  heart 
of  a  viper,  or  of  a  turtle,  beats  diftinctly  from  twenty  to 
thirty  hours  after  the  death  of  thefe  animals.  The  peri- 
ftaltic  motion  of  the  inteftines  is  produced  by  their  irrita- 
bility. When  the  inteftines  of  a  dog,  or  any  other  qua- 
druped, are  fuddenly  cut  into  different  portions,  all  thefe 
portions  crawl  about  like  worms,  and  contract  upon  the 
ilightefl  touch.  Though  irritability  be  unqueftionably  a 

G  vital 


i8  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

vital  principle,  yet  it  is  equally  certain,  that  mufcular  fi- 
bres, when  fcparated  from  the  body  to  which  they  belong, 
have  no  diflinct  perception  of  pleafure,  or  pain.  Their 
regular  contraction  and  dilatation  are  evident  fymptoms 
of  life,  which,  in  many  cafes,  may  lead  us  to  attribute 
living  powers  to  fubftances  that  enjoy  neither  life  nor  fen- 
fation.  Hence,  though  all  plants  were  irritable,  this  cir- 
cumftance  would  not  prove  that  they  are  polfeffed  of  life. 
The  contraction  and  dilatation  of  the  feniitive  plants,  and 
the  various  motions  of  the  leaves,  branches,  flowers,  and 
roots  of  vegetables,  formerly  mentioned,  feem  to  indicate 
that  mod  plants  are  endowed  with  irritability.  Perhaps, 
all  vegetables  have  more  or  lefs  of  this  quality.  The  heart, 
inteitines,  and  diaphragm  are  the  moft  irritable  parts  of 
animal  bodies :  And,  to  difcover  whether  this  quality  re- 
fides  in  all  plants,  experiments  mould  be  made  chiefly  on 
their  leaves,  flowers,  buds,  and  the  tender  fibres  of  the 
roots, 

From  this  narration  of  facts,  it  appears,  that  plants 
make  a  very  near  approach  to  animals ;  and  that  this  fi- 
milarity,  as  well  as  the  difficulty  of  fixing  the  precife  boun- 
daries by  which  thefe  two  great  kingdoms  of  nature  are 
limited,  are  direct  confequences  of  the  organization  of 
vegetables.  It  is  ov/ing  to  their  organic  ftructure  alone, 
that  plants  and  animals  are  capable  of  affording  reciprocal 
nourishment  to  each  other.  This  organic  ftructure,  though 
greatly  diverfified  in  the  different  fpecies  of  animals  and 
vegetables,  evinces  that  Nature,  in  the  formation  of  both, 
has  acted  upon  the  fame  general  plan.  May  we  not  pre- 
fume,  therefore,  as  plants,  as  well  as  animals,  are  com- 
pofed  of  a  regular  fyflem  of  organs,  that  the  vegetable 
part  of  the  creation  is  not  entirely  deprived  of  every  qua- 
lity which  we  are  apt  to  think  peculiar  to  animated  beings? 
I  mean  not  to  infinuate,  that  plants  can  perceive  pleafure 
or  pain.  But,  as  many  of  their  motions  and  affections 
cannot  be  explained  upon  any  principle  of  mechanifm,  I 
am  inclined  to  think,  that  they  originate  from  the  power 
of  irritability,  which,  though  it  implies  not  the  perception 
of  pleafure  and  pain,  is  the  principle  that  regulates  all  the 
vital  or  involuntary  motions  of  animals.  To  afcertain 

this 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  19 

this  point,  would  require  a  fet  of  very  nice  experiments. 
I  (hall  mention  one,  which  might  be  performed  with  toler- 
able eafe.  It  was  formerly  remarked,  that  plants  kept  in 
a  hot-houfe,  where  the  degree  of  heat  is  uniform,  never 
fail  to  fieep  during  the  night.  This  is  direct  evidence, 
that  heat  alone  is  not  the  caufe  of  their  vigilance.  But, 
they  are  deprived  of  light.  Let,  therefore,  a  drong  arti- 
ficial light,  without  increafmg  the  heat,  be  thrown  upon 
them.  If,  notwithstanding  this  light,  the  plants  are  not 
roufed,  but  continue  to  fleep  as  ufnal,  then  it  may  be  pre- 
fumed  that  their  organs,  like  thofe  of  animals,  are  not  on- 
ly irritable,  but  require  the  reparation  of  fome  invigorat- 
ing influence  which  they  have  loft  while  awake,  by  the 
agitations  of  the  air  and  the  fun's  rays,  by  the  act  of 
growing,  or  by  fome  other  latent  caufe. 

It  is  almoft  unneceflary  to  mark  the  didinttion  between 
vegetables  and  minerals.  The  tranfition  from  the  animal 
to  the  plant  is  effected  by  fhades  fo  imperceptible,  as  to 
elude  the  rnoft  acute  obfervers.  But,  between  the  plant 
and  the  mineral,  there  is  a  vad  chafrn  in  the  chain  of  be- 
ing, which  may  be  the  fource  of  great  difcoveries.  In 
bodies  purely  mineral,  not  a  veftige  of  organization  can 
be  discovered.  The  fibrous  dructure  of  the  afbeftos  has 
been  regarded  as  an  approach  toward  organization,  and 
as  the  link  which  connects  the  mineral  to  the  vegetable 
kingdom.  But,  this  is  one  of  thofe  drained  analogies 
which  are  too  often  employed  by  theoretical  writers. 
Though  the  albedos  is  compofed  of  a  kind  of  threads,  or 
fibres,  thefe  fibres  are  not  tubular  ;  neither  are  they  inter- 
woven, like  that  regular  tifTue,  or  fabric,  which  fo  re- 
markably didinguifnes  organized  from  brute  matter.  Of 
courfe,  the  magnitude  of  the  abedos  can  only  be  increafed 
by  the  appofition  of  new  matter,  and  not  by  any  develope- 
ment  or  expanfion  of  parts.  But,  though,  in  the  mine- 
ral kingdom,  Nature  ceafes  to  organize,  me  continues  to 
arrange. 

The  regular  configuration  of  falts,  chrydals,  and  other 
precious  ilones,  has  been  confidered,  by  fome  authors,  as 
the  refult  of  an  organic  procefs.  But,  the  uniform  figure 
of  falts  and  chrydals  may  be  the  effect  of  certain  laws  of 

attraction 


20  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

attraction  peculiar  to  each  fpecies.  None  of  thefe  parti- 
cles can  be  regarded  as  a  germ,  or  bud.  They  are  only 
the  elements,  or  conilituent  parts,  which,  when  applied 
to  each  other,  form  a  whole.  They  never  expand,  or 
grow,  like  the  embrios  of  animals,  or  plants.  They  re- 
main for  ever  in  the  fame  (late,  -without  diminution,  or 
increafe,  except  when  feparated  by  force,  or  magnified  by 
an  accumulation  of  frefh  matter.  The  chryftalline  juice 
is  not  ailimulated  by  veffels  :  It  is  prepared  by  a  chymical 
operation  of  Nature.  The  bodies  of  plants  and  animals 
are  machines,  exceedingly  elaborate,  and  more  or  lefs 
complicated.  Thefe  machines,  by  means  of  different  or- 
gans, have  the  power  of  converting  other  animals  and  ve- 
getables into  their  own  fubflance.  By  this  afiimulation, 
ail.  their  dimenfions  are  increafed  ;  and  their  various  parts 
uniformly  prefer ve  the  fame  proportions  with  regard  to 
each  other,  and  continue  to  perform  their  refpeclive  func- 
tions. Befides,  organized  bodies  not  only  multiply  their 
fpecies,  but  fome  of  them  poifefs  the  power  of  reproduc- 
ing fuch  parts  as  are  forcibly  abftracled  from  them. 

In  thefe  and  many  other  qualities  common  to  the  ani- 
mal and  vegetable,  there  is  not  the  fmallefl  analogy  to  be 
found  in  the  mineral  kingdom.  Between  the  mod  regu- 
lar foflils, 'as  falts  and  chryftals,  and  the  rnoft  imperfeft 
animal  or  vegetable,  the  diftance  is  immenfe.  Figured 
foifils  are  not  more  organized  than  a  column,  or  a  portico. 
In  the  formation  of  the  former,  Nature,  in  that  of  the 
latter,  man,  is  the  artid.  When  no  fimilarity  is  to  be 
difcovered  in  thofe  foflils  which  are  nearly  uniform  in  their 
configuration,  we  are  not  to  expect  it  in  the  more  loofe 
and  irregular  pares  of  brute  matter.  Here,  Nature,  re- 
gardlefs  of  fymmetry,  conjoins  heterogeneous  materials, 
of  which  fhe  compofes  irregular  maifes.  Many  ftones, 
flints,  and  other  concretions,  afford  examples  of  this 
kind.  More  art,  it  mufl  be  acknowledged,  apptjars  in 
the  formation  of  metals  :  But  their  flruclure  exhibits  no 
veftiges  of  organization. 


ANALOGIES. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  21 


ANALOGIES. 


HAVING  fhown  the  extreme  difficulty  of  fixing  the 
boundaries  which  feparate  the  animal  from  the  vegetable 
kingdom,  I  proceed  to  the  more  pleafmg  tafk  of  enume- 
rating fome  of  thofe  beautiful  analogies  which  fubfift  be- 
tween them.  To  render  this  fubjecl:  the  more  agreeable 
and  inflru&ive,  inftead  of  bringing  together  an  uncon- 
nected mafs,  I  fhall  trace  the  analogies  between  the  animal 
and  plant,  under  the  arrangement  of  StruElure  and  Organs  9 
Growth  and  Nouri/hment,  DiJJemination  and  Decay. 


STRUCTURE  AND  ORGANS. 


IN  all  organized  bodies,  a  fimilarity  of  ftruclure  feems 
to  be  unavoidable.  The  bodies  of  men  and  quadrupeds 
confiil  of  a  feries  of  connected  bones,  which  run  from 
the  head  to  the  rump.  This  feries  is  known  by  the  name 
of  the  back-bone  ;  from  each  fide  of  which,  a  number  of 
arched  bones  proceed.  Some  of  thele  join  the  bread- 
bone  by  means  of  cartilages,  and  form  a  vaulted  cavity, 
which  contains  and  defends  the  heart  and  other  vifcera 
proper  to  the  chefl.  The  bones  of  the  pelvis,  and  of  the 
four  extremities,  are  joined  to  the  back-bones  by  articu- 
lations, and  membranes.  By  the  fame  contrivance,  the 
cranium  is  fixed  to  the  upper  end  of  the  back-bones.  Into 
different  proceffes  and  portions  of  all  thefe  bones,  a  great 
number  of  mufcles,  or  bundles  of  flefhy  fibres,  are  infert- 
ed.  Thefe  mufcles  are  the  inftruments  which  give  rife  to 
all  S|ie  varieties  of  animal  motion.  The  bones  of  the  head, 
or  cranium,  contain  the  brain  and  cerebellum,  a  prolon- 
gation of  which  runs  through  the  whole  extent  of  the  ca- 
nal in  the  back-bone,  and  is  known  by  the  term  fpmal 
marrow.  From  the  brain  and  fpinal  marrow  proceed  all 
the  nerves,  or  inftruments  of  fenfation.  Thefe  nerves, 

the 


22  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

the  ramifications  of  which  are  infinitely  various,  and  mi- 
nute, are  diftributed  upon  the  heart,  lungs,  blood-veflels, 
bowels,  and  mufcles,  till  they  terminate  on  the  (kin,  or 
external  covering  of  the  body.  The  heart  is  the  fountain, 
or  general  receptacle,  of  the  blood.  The  contraction  of 
the  heart  propels  the  blood  through  the  arteries,  which 
are  likewife  diftributed,  by  numerous  and  complicated  ra- 
mifications, over  every  part  of  the  body,  and  terminate 
in  the  veins,  which  again  collecl:  the  whole  arterial  blood 
into  one  cavity,  and  re-convey  it  to  the  heart.  This  cir- 
culatory proceis  goes  on  during  life. 

Befide  the  organs  already  mentioned,  there  are  others, 
termed  fecretory,  becaufe  they  feparate  peculiar  fluids  from 
the  general  mafs  of  circulating  blood.  The  ftomach  and 
inteftines  are  furnifhed  with  a  vaft  number  of  fmall  tubes, 
called  ladeal  dufts,  which  feparate  and  abforb  the  nutri- 
tious parts  of  the  aliment,  and  rejedl  all  the  grofler  and 
ufelefs  particles.  Thefe  duels,  after  innumerable  com- 
munications with  each  other,  unite  into  one  large  tube, 
diftmguifhed  by  the  name  of  the  thoracic  duct^  which  is 
the  general  refervoir  of  the  chyle,  or  fecreted  liquor.  This 
chyle,  which  is  a  mild  fluid,  paffes  from  the  thoracic  duel 
to  the  fubclavian  vein ;  and  by  this  vein  it  is  conveyed  to 
the  heart,  where  it  mingles  with  the  blood,  and  is  circu- 
lated through  the  body,  for  the  nourifhment  of  its  differ- 
ent parts.  It  is  of  no  moment,  for  our  prefent  purpofe, 
to  be  more  particular,  efpecially  as  this  fubject  will  be  af- 
terwards more  fully  handled.  I  mail,  therefore,  juft  men- 
tion, that  there  are  particular  organs,  or  glands,  for  fe- 
creting  various  fluids,  which  are  neceflary  to  the  exiflence 
of  the  larger  animals,  as  the  kidneys  for  the  fecretion  of 
urine  ;  the  liver  for  the  fecretion  of  gall  ;  the  flomach 
for  the  fecretion  of  the  gaftric  juices ;  the  falivary  glands 
for  the  fecretion  of  faliva,  &c. 

From  this  flcetch  of  the  ftructure  of  man  and  of  qua- 
drupeds, very  little  attention  is  neceffary  to  perceive,  that 
Nature  purfues  a  firnilar  plan  in  the  formation  of  birds, 
and  fifties. 

In  thnt  numerous  clafs  of  animals  diflinguifhed  by  the 
name  of  infects^  there  is  a  great  variety  of  form,  and  llruc- 

ture. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          23 

ture.  In  many  of  thefe,  Nature  feems  to  depart  from  her 
general  mode  of  operation.  But,  upon  a  more  accurate 
examination,  this  feeming  departure  will  appear  to  be  on- 
ly an  extenfion  of  that  univerfal  plan  which  me  obferves 
in  the  formation  of  all  animated  beings.  Some  infects, 
the  lobfter,  and  all  the  cruilaceous  and  fhell  animals,  have 
their  bones  on  the  outfide  of  their  bodies.  To  thefe  bones 
the  mufcles  and  other  inftruments  of  motion  are  attached. 
Many  fpecies  have  no  bones ;  but,  their  bodies  confift  of 
a  fucceliion  of  rings  incafed  into  each  other.  By  contract- 
ing and  dilating  thefe  rings,  all  the  movements  of  this 
kind  are  performed.  The  head,  in  fome  fpecies,  changes 
its  form  every  moment.  It  contracts  or  dilates,  appears  or 
difappears,  at  the  pleafure  of  the  animal.  Thefe  motions 
are  permitted  by  the  flexibility  of  the  membranes,  or  co- 
verings of  the  head.  In  other  fpecies,  the  form  of  the 
head  is  permanent,  owing  to  the  hardnefs  of  the  cover- 
ings, which  are  fcaley,  or  cruftaceous,  and  approaches 
nearer  to  that  of  the  more  perfect  animals. 

Many  infects  are  deftitute  of  particular  organs.  Some 
want  eyes,  ears,  brain,  and  noflrils.  Others  have  an  acute 
fenfe  of  fmelling,  though  we  know  not  the  form  or  fituation 
of  the  organ.  The  inferior  fpecies  of  infects  have  no  in- 
ternal lungs,  but  receive  air  by  lateral  pores,  and  fometimes 
by  long  tubes,  or  tracheae,  which  protrude  from  different 
parts  of  the  body.  Many  infects  have  no  heart,  or  gene- 
ral refervoir  for  the  reception  and  propulfion  of  the  blood. 
But,  we  difcover  by  the  microfcope,  that  their  blood  cir- 
culates by  the  pulfation  of  arteries,  and  that  their  differ- 
ent fluids  are  fecreted  by  glands.  In  a  word,  Nature,  in 
the  ftructure  and  functions  of  animals,  defcends,  by  de- 
grees almoit  imperceptible,  from  man  to  the  polypus  ;  a 
being  which,  ever  fmce  its  ceconomy  and  properties  were 
difcovered  by  M.  Trembley,  has  continued  to  aftoniih 
both  philofophers  and  naturalifts.  The  ftructure  of  the 
polypus,  which  inhabits  frelh-water  pools  and  ditches,  is 
extremely  fimple.  Its  body  confifts  of  a  fmgle  tube,  with 
long  tentacula,  or  arms,  at  one  extremity,  by  which  it 
feizes  fmall  worms,  and  conveys  them  to  its  mouth.  It 
has  no  proper  head,  heart,  flomach,  or  inteflines  of  any 

kind. 


24  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

kind.  This  fimplicity  of  ftru&ure  gives  rife  to  an  equal 
fimplicity  in  the  oeconomy  and  fundions  of  the  animal. 
The  polypus,  though  it  has  not  the  diftin&ion  of  fex,  is 
extremely  prolific.  When  about  to  muUiply,  a  fmall  pro- 
tuberance, or  bud,  appears  on  the  furface  of  its  body. 
This  bud  gradually  fwells  and  extends.  It  includes  not  a 
young  polypus,  but  is  the  real  animal  in  miniature,  united 
to  the  mother,  as  a  fucker  to  the  parent-tree.  The  food 
taken  by  the  mother  paffes  into  the  young  by  means  of  a 
communicating  aperture.  When  the  mooting  polypus 
has  acquired  a  certain  growth,  this  aperture  gradually 
clofes,  and  the  young  drops  off,  to  multiply  its  fpecies  in 
the  fame  manner.  As  every  part  of  a  polypus  is  capable 
of  fending  off  (hoots,  it  often  happens,  .that  the  young, 
before  parting  from  the  mother,  begin  to  fhoot ;  and  the 
parent  animal  carries  feveral  generations  on  her  own  bo- 
dy. There  is  another  fmgularity  in  the  hiftory  of  the  po- 
lypus. When  cut  to  pieces  in  every  direction  fancy  can 
fugged,  it  not  only  continues  to  exift,  but  each  ieclion 
foon  becomes  an  animal  of  the  fame  kind.  What  is  ilill 
more  furprifing,  when  inverted  as  a  man  inverts  the  fin- 
ger of  a  glove,  the  polypus  feems  to  have  fuffered  no 
material  injury ;  for  it  foon  begins  to  take  food,  and  to 
perform  every  other  natural  fun&ion.  Here  we  have  a 
wonderful  inftance  of  animal  ductility.  No  divifion,  how- 
ever minute,  can  deprive  thefe  worms  of  life.  What  in- 
fallibly dedroys  other  animals,  ferves  only,  in  the  polypus, 
to  multiply  the  number  of  individuals.  M.  Trembley,  in 
the  courfe  of  his  experiments,  difcovered,  that  different 
portions  of  one  polypus  could  be  ingrafted  pn  another. 
Two  tranfverfe  fections  brought  into  contact  quickly  unite, 
and  form  one  animal,  though  each  fedion  belongs  to  a 
different  fpecies.  The  head  of  one  fpecies  may  be  ingrafted 
on  the  body  of  another.  When  a  polypus  is  introduced 
by  the  tail  into  another's  body,  the  two  heads  unite,  and 
form  one  individual.  Purfuing  thefe  ftrange  operations, 
M.  Trembley  gave  fcope  to  his  fancy,  £nd,  by  repeatedly 
fplitting  the  head  and  part  of  the  body,  formed  hydras 
more  complicated  than  ever  "(truck  the  imagination  of  the 
moit  romantic  fabuliics. 

This 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          25 

This  fhort  account  of  the  general  ftructure  of  animals 
\vas  a  neceffary  preparation  for  perceiving  more  clearly 
their  connection  with  the  vegetable  kingdom. 

The  ftructure  of  plants,  like  that  of  animals,  confifls 
of  a  feries  of  veffels  difpofed  in  a  regular  order.  Thefe 
veffels  are  deilined  to  perform  the  different  functions  ne- 
ceffary to  the  nourifhment,  growth,  and  diffemination  of 
the  plant.  In  tiees,  and  mod  of  the  larger  vegetables, 
three  diftinct  parts  are  to  be  obferved  ;  the  bark,  the  wood, 
and  the  pith.  The  bark  likewife  confifts  of  three  parts  ; 
the  fkin,  the  body,  and  the  liber  ^  or  inner  circle ;  which 
lad,  about  the  end  of  autumn,  afTumes  the  fame  texture 
and  firmnefs  with  the  wood.  The  fubftance  of  the  bark 
is  compofed  of  a  number  of  longitudinal  fap  and  air  vef- 
fels,  which  have  the  appearance  of  fine  threads,  running 
from  the  root  to  the  trunk,  and  branches.  Befide  thefe 
veflels,  the  bark  is  furnifhed  with  a  parenchymatous  or 
pulpy  fubftance,  in  which  there  is  a  vail  variety  of  folliculi^ 
or  fmall  bladders.  The  bark  is  connected  to  the  wood  by 
tranfverfe  infertions  of  the  parenchyma. 

The  wood  confifts  of  two  diftinct  fubftances  ;  the  one 
is  denfe,  and  compact,  and  conflitutes  what  is  termed  the 
ligneous  body  ;  the  other  is  porous,  moid,  and  pulpy,  and 
is,  therefore,  called  the  parenchymatous  part  of  the  wood. 
A  portion  of  wood  is  placed  alternately  between  a  fimilar 
portion  of  parenchyma.  Thefe  alternate  portions  proceed 
from  the  edges  of  the  pith,  as  radii  from  the  center  of  a 
circle,  widening  proportionally  as  they  approach  the  cir- 
cumference. Both  of  them,  however,  like  the  bark,  are 
furnifhed  with  numberlefs  fap  and  ait  veffels. 

The  pith,  or  heart,  is  bounded  on  all  fides  by  the 
wood,  and  is  compofed  of  the  fame  materials  :  It  is  no- 
thing but  a  vaft  congeries  of  air  and  fap  veffels,  interwo- 
ven with  the  parenchyma  and  bladders,  not  unlike  the 
tiffue  of  gauze,  or  lace.  This  texture  is  common  to  every 
part  of  the  trunk,  being  only  more  clofe  and  compact  in 
the  bark  and  wood  than  in  the  pith.  It  is  well  known, 
that  the  pith  of  plants  diminimes  in  proportion  to  their 
age.  The  reafon  is  obvious  :  Every  year  the  ring  of  vef- 

D  fels, 


26  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

fels,  which  lies  contiguous  to  the  wood,  dries,  condenfes, 
and  becomes  wood. 

The  leaves  of  vegetables  confift  of  a  fine  fkin,  which 
inclofes  the  parenchyma,  or  pulp.  This  fkin,  like  that  of 
animals,  is  an  organic  body,  furnifhed  with  an  immenfe 
number  of  parenchymatous  and  ligneous  fibres,  and  inter- 
woven in  a  manner  precifely  fimilar  to  that  of  the  trunk, 
and  branches.  When  the  fkin  is  removed,  the  pulp  ap- 
pears, and  is  every  where  interfperfecl  with  fmall  cylindri- 
cal fibres,  wound  up  into  minute  bladders.  A  large  nerve 
runs  along  the  middle  of  every  leaf,  and  continually  fends 
off  branches,  which  gradually  decreafe  in  magnitude,  till 
they  reach  the  edge,  or  difc.  This  principal  nerve  is  a 
collection  of  fmall  tubes,  which,  at  proper  dillances,  go  off, 
and  are  diflributed  over  the  leaf  in  a  manner  precifely  fi- 
milar to  the  diftribution  of  the  nerves  over  the  human 
body. 

With  regard  to  flowers  and  fruits,  their  general  texture 
is  the  fame  with  that  of  the  parts  already  defcribed,  dif- 
fering only  in  various  proportions  of  the  ligneous  veffels, 
and  parenchymatous  or  pulpy  fubftance.  That  vegetables 
are  poffeffed  of  fecretory  glands,  is  apparent  from  the  al- 
moft  infinite  variety  of  their  taftes,  odours,  and  colours. 
Thefe  fenfible  qualities  differ  even  in  different  parts  of  the 
fame  plant.  But,  the  glandular  fecretion  of  vegetables  is 
moil  confpicuous  in  the  flowers  and  fruit.  Many  flowers 
fecrete  a  ne&areous  fluid,  which  is  more  grateful  to  the 
palate  than  the  fined  honey.  The  glands  of  fome  fruits, 
as  thofe  of  the  lemon  and  orange,  fecrete  liquors  of  very 
different  qualities.  The  veiTels  of  the  rhind  contain  an 
acrid  elfential  oil,  while  thofe  of  the  parenchyma,  or  pulp, 
fecrete  an  agreeable  acid. 

This  fimilarity  in  the  general  flru&ure  of  animals  and 
plants  Is  flrongly  corroborated  by  the  analogous  parts  in 
both  being  deftined  to  anfwer  the  fame  purpofes. 

The  oeconomy  and  functions  of  vegetables,  as  well  as 
thofe  of  animals,  are  the  refults  of  a  vafcular  texture. 
Each  of  thefe  claffes  of  beings  have  veflels  deftined  to  the 
performance  of  fimilar  offices.  In  man  and  quadrupeds, 
the  fluids  are  circulated  by  the  pulfation  of  the  heart  and 

arteries. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          27 

arteries.  The  juices  of  plants  do  not  circulate ;  but  they 
are  raifed  from  the  root  to  the  trunk,  branches,  leaves, 
flowers,  and  fruit,  by  the  fap-veffels.  The  afcenfion  of 
the  fap  has  been  afcribed  to  capillary  attraction.  But, 
though  no  motion  is  perceptible  in  the  fap-vefiels  fimilar 
to  the  pulfation  of  arteries  ;  yet,  both  the  propulfioi 
the  fap,  which  moves  with  great  force,  and  the  fecretion 
of  different  fluids  by  different  parts  of  the  fame  plant,  im- 
ply an  action  in  thefe  vefiels.  In  animals,  the  gall,  the 
urine,  the  faliva,  are.  all  concocted  from  the  general  mafs 
of  blood,  by  the  action  of  particular  vefiels.  Fluids  of 
thefe  different  qualities  exift  not  in  the  blood  itfelf :  They 
are  created  by  an  incomprehenfibie  operation  of  the  vef- 
fels,  peculiar  to  their  refpective  glands.  In  plants,  the  lap 
afcends,  and  different  fluids  are  fecre"ted  from  it  by  glan- 
dular veffels.  Here  the  fame  effects  are  produced  both  in 
the  animal  and  the  plant.  We  muft,  therefore,  attribute 
them  to  the  fame  caufe,  namely,  the  action  of  veffels. 
Befides,  the  fap,  which  is  the  blood  of  plants,  moves 
with  a  force  often  equivalent  to  the  weight  of  the  atmof- 
phere.  M.  Bonnet  remarks  *,  that  he  has  feen,  by  means 
of  coloured  liquors,  the  vegetable  fap  move  three  inches 
in  an  hour ;  and  Dr.  Hales,  in  his  Statics,  has  fhown, 
that  the  leaves  are  the  principal  organs  of  tranfpiration. 
He  likewife  confiders  them  to  be  the  inftruments  which 
raife  the  fap.  But,  it  has  fmce  been  difcovered,  that  co- 
loured liquors  rife  equally  high  in  branches  deprived  of 
leaves,  and  that  they  do  not  rife  at  all  in  dried  plants. 
Hence,  the  fap  of  vegetables  is  not  taken  up  in  the  fame 
manner  as  a  fpunge  imbibes  water,  but  is  forced  to  afcend 
by  an  unknown  adion  of  the  veffels.  The  fpring  of  the 
tracheae  may  put  in  motion  the  air  they  contain,  and  that 
air  may  have  fome  influence  on  the  general  movement. 
But,  by  whatever  powers  the  fap  is  moved,  the  exiftence 
of  the  motion  is  certain ;  and  it  is  equally  certain,  that 
this  movement  of  the  fap  produces  the  fame  effects  in  the 
vegetable,  that  the  force  of  the  heart  and  arteries  does  in 
the  animal. 

The  motion  of  the  fap,  in  vegetables,  is  not  properly 

a  cir- 

*  Oeuvres,  torn.  i.  p.  140.     S. 


iS  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

a  circulation  fimilar  to  that  of  the  blood  in  the  more  per- 
fect animals.  It  afcends  and  defcends  in  the  fame  veflels  ; 
and  thefe  motions  are  evidently  affe&ed  by  heat  and  cold. 
The  fap  rifes  copioufly  in  a  warm  day,  and  defcends  during 
the  night,  nearly  in  the  fame  manner  as  the  mercury  rifes 
and  falls  in  the  thermometer.  But,  though  the  analogy 
here  fails  with  regard  to  man  and  the  larger  animals,  yet  it 
holds  in  the  taenia,  the  polypus,  and  many  other  infects, 
which  exhibit  not  the  fmallefl  veftiges  of  circulation  in 
their  juices. 

The  pith,  or  medullary  fubflance  of  plants,  has  fome 
refemblance  to  the  brain  and  fpinal-marrcw  of  animals. 
When  the  texture  of  the  brain  or  fpinal-marrow  is  de- 
ftroyed,  life  is  extinguifhed  ;  and,  when  the  pith  of  plants 
is  deflroyed,  or  dried  up  by  age,  they  no  longer  retain  the 
power  of  vegetating.  The  leaves  of  plants  are  analogous 
to  the  lungs  of  animals.  It  is  by  the  lungs  that  the  per- 
fpiration  of  animals  is  chiefly  effected  ;  and  plants  difcharge 
mod  of  their  fuperfluous  moifture  by  the  leaves.  They 
expofe  a  large  furface  to  the  a&ion  of  the  fun,  which  pro- 
duces a  tranfpiration  fo  copious,  that  fome  plants  throw 
out  fifteen  or  twenty  times  more  in  a  given  period,  than 
is  difcharged  from  the  human  body.  When  a  plant  is  de- 
prived of  its  leaves  in  fummer,  inflead  of  ripening  its  fruit, 
it  is  in  great  danger  of  dying  for  want  of  thofe  organs 
which  carry  off  the  fuperfluous  juices  that  arife  from  the 
root.  A  plant,  in  this  fituation,  may  be  confidered  as  la- 
bouring under  an  afthma,  or  dying  of  a  fuffocation. 

Befide  the  leaves,  plants  tranfpire  by  the  pores  of  the 
(kin.  But,  the  quantity  emitted  in  this  manner  is  not 
nearly  equal  to  that  which  ifiues  from  the  leaves.  The 
fame  thing  happens  with  regard  to  man  and  quadrupeds. 
Though  they  likewife  perfpire  through  the  (kin,  yet  by 
much  the  greater  quantity  of  perfpirable  matter  is  dif- 
charged by  the  lungs.  Befide  throwing  out  fuperfluous 
or  noxious  matter  by  the  leaves,  plants,  by  the  fame  or- 
gans, abforb  from  the  atmofphere,  and  perhaps  from  the 
fun's  rays,  fome  unknown  matter,  which  is  neceflary  to 
their  exiflence.  The  lungs  of  animals'  likewife  derive, 

from 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          29 

from  the  fame  fources,  a  particular  matter,  or  principle, 
without  which  life  could  not  long  be  continued. 

Another  analogy  between  the  ftructure  of  plants  and 
animals  merits  obfervation.  The  round  bones  of  animals 
confift  of  concentric  ftrata,  or  plates,  which  can  be  eafily 
feparated  ;  and  the  wood  of  plants  confifts  of  concentric 
layers  of  hardened  veflels,  which  feparate  when  macerated 
in  water.  A  tree  acquires  an  additional  ring  every  year  ; 
and,  by  counting  thefe  rings,  a  pretty  exact  eftimation  of 
its  age  may  be  attained. 

The  branches  of  plants  have  been  confidered  as  analo- 
gous to  the  arms  or  tentacula  of  animals.  But,  this  is  one 
of  thofe  drained  analogies  which  mould  be  carefully 
avoided.  The  great  ufe  of  branches  is  evident.  By  pro- 
ducing an  amazing  number  of  leaves,  a  large  furface  is  ex- 
pofed  to  the  air  and  fun,  to  anfwer  the  important  purpofes 
of  tranfpiration  and  abforption.  If  there  is  any  thing  in 
plants  analogous  to  the  arms  or  tentacula  of  animals,  it 
mufl  be  confined  to  fuch  fpecies  as  twift  themfelves  around 
poles  or  trees,  as  the  ivy  *,  the  vine  f ,  the  convolvulus, 
&c.  and  to  fuch  as  fupport  their  trunks  on  other  bodies  by 
means  of  little  hooks,  as  the  goofe-grafs  ||,  and  many 
other  kinds. 

All  thefe  analogies,  it  may  .be  remarked,  are  confined 
to  large  animals,  and  large  vegetables  ;  but  they  hold  not 
in  that  numerous  tribe  of  plants  called  graffes.  Inftead  of 
being  filled  with  wood  and  pith,  their  ftems  are  perfectly 
hollow ;  and,  to  fortify  thefe  plants,  Nature  has  beftowed 
on  them  itrong  joints,  or  knots,  which  are  placed  at  re- 
gular diftances  in  each  fpecies.  But,  though  fome  of  the 
analogies  which  fubfift  between  the  larger  animals  and  ve- 
getables exiil  not  in  the  fmaller  plants,  this  circumftance, 
inftead  of  infringing,  confirms  the  general  plan  of  Nature. 
To  difcover  the  analogies  between  tubular  plants  and  ani- 
mals, we  muft  examine  the  ftrudure  of  the  minuter  tribes 
of  animated  beings.  The  graffes  have  neither  pith  nor 
wood  internally ;  and  the  polypus,  the  taenia,  and  many 
other  infects,  haVe  no  bones,  heart,  or  inteftines,  but  are 
fimple  tubes,  perfectly  refembling  the  empty  ftems  of  the 

gramineous 

*  Hedera.  t  Vitis.  \  Galium  Aparine. 


3o  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

gramineous  plants.  Befides,  the  ligneous,  or  at  leafl  the 
herbaceous  part  of  thefe  plants,  is  placed  on  the  outfide, 
fimilar  to  the  cruflaceous  and  fhell  animals,  whofe  bones 
are  fituated  externally.  Another  analogy  mufl  not  be 
omitted.  The  fucculent  vegetables,  fuch  as  the  houfe- 
leek*,  the  mufhroom  tribes,  and  many  fea-plants,  confift 
almofl  entirely  of  a  pulpy  or  parenchymatous  fubflance, 
and  may  be  cruihed  to  a  jelly  by  the  flighted  preffure. 
The  texture  of  worms,  caterpillars,  and  of  all  the  foft  in- 
fects, is  extremely  fimilar  to  that  of  the  fucculent  vege- 
tables. 


II.— GROWTH  AND  NOURISHMENT. 

THE  fecond  fource  of  analogies  between  the  plant  and 
animal  is  derived  from  the  modes  of  their  growth  and 
nourifhment. 

Many  ingenious  theories  have  been  invented,  with  a 
view  to  explain  the  myflerious  operation  by  which  the 
growth  and  nourifhment  of  animals  and  vegetables  are 
effected.  But,  I  mall  confine  myfelf,  at  prefent,  to  fuch 
remarks  as  are  purely  analogical,  and  may  be  fully  under- 
ftood  without  a  minute  knowledge  of  the  different  ways 
by  which  growth  and  nourifhment  have  been  fuppofed 
to  be  accomplifhed. 

Animals,  like  vegetables,  gradually  expand  from  an 
embryo  or  gelatinous  flate,  and,  according  to  their  kinds, 
arrive  fooner  or  later  at  perfection.  This  expanfion  and 
augmentation  of  fubflance  is  the  idea  conveyed  by  the 
•word  growth.  Without  fome  nutritious  matter  taken  in- 
to the  body,  and  affimilated,  by  the  action  of  veffels,  to 
the  fubflance  of  the  being  that  receives  it,  growth  cannot 
take  place.  Moiflure  is  the  chief  food  of  plants.  But, 
the  food  of  animals,  in  general,  varies  with  the  fpecies. 
This  fad:  led  fome  philofophers  to  conclude,  that  every 
plant  extracted  from  the  foil  a  food  peculiar  to  its  own 
nature.  It  was,  however,  afterwards  difcovered,  by  re- 
peated experiments,  that  vegetables  can  grow,  and  acquire 

a  very 

*  Sempervivum  tcffontm,  &c. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY,          31 

a  very  confiderable  degree  of  bulk  and  weight,  without 
exhaufting  a  perceptible  quantity  of  the  earth  in  which 
they  are  planted.  Thefe  experiments  are  a  fufficient  proof, 
that  moifture  conftitutes  the  chief  nourifhment  of  plants. 
They  likewife  indicate,  that  vegetables,  however  diversified 
in  their  figure,  denfity,  and  fibrous  arrangement,  are  more 
fimple  in  their  texture  than  animals.  But,  notwith- 
ftanding  thefe  feeming  differences  in  the  nourifhment 
of  plants  and  animals,  Nature  fails  not  to  obferve  the 
fame  courfe  in  both  kingdoms.  The  food  of  the  ani- 
mal, before  it  is  converted  into  nourifhment,  mufl  go 
through  the  intricate  procefs  of  digeflion.  But,  after 
the  food  has  been  converted  into  chyle,  and  the  chyle  into 
blood,  this  blood  becomes  a  common  fluid,  from  which 
all  nourifhment  and  all  animal  fluids  are  derived.  Here 
the  analogy  is  apparent.  Moifture  is  to  the  plant  pre- 
cifely  what  blood  is  to  the  animal.  Each  of  them  extracts- 
its  nourifhment  from  a  common  fluid  ;  and,  in  both,  this 
fluid  is  changed,  by  the  action  of  veflels,  into  the  various 
juices  peculiar  to  the  different  fpecies. 

When  growth  firft  commences,  the  embryos  of  plants 
and  animals  are  in  fimilar  circumftances.  Soon  after  con- 
ception, the  foetus  is  inclofed  in  its  membranes,  and  is 
nourifhed,  till  mature  for  birth,  by  blood  which  it  receives- 
from  the  uterus,  and  placenta.  In  the  fame  manner,  the 
embryo  of  a  plant  is  inclofed  in  the  membranes  of  the 
feed  ;  and  its  fibrous  roots  are  fpread  over  the  lobes, 
or  pulpy  part.  After  the  feed  is  fown,  and  vegetation 
commences,  the  embryo  is  nourifhed  by  moifture,  which 
th  e  lobes  abforb  from  the  earth,  and  convey  it  to  the  mi- 
nute tubes  of  the  feminal  root.  In  many  plants,  thefe 
lobes  rife  above  the  furface  of  the  ground,  in  the  form  of 
leaves,  and  continue  to  nourifh  and  protect  the  tender 
plume,  or  ftem,  till  it  acquires  ftrength  fufficient  to  fup- 
port  the  aflaults  of  the  air,  and  weather.  A  plant,  in 
this  fituation,  may  be  faid  to  have  two  roots ;  one,  the  fi- 
bres of  which  are  diffufed  through  the  fubftance  of  the 
lobes,  or  feminal  leaves,  and  another  attached  to  the  foil. 

The  nourifhment  thus  conveyed  to  vegetables  by  the  fe- 
minal leaves,  is  extremely  analogous  to  that  of  animals 

bY 


32  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

by  the  milk  of  the  mother.  The  texture  of  young  ani- 
mals is  fo  lax  and  unelaftic,  that  the  food  fuited  to  maturer 
years  would  foon  put  a  period  to  their  exiftence.  But, 
Nature  has  provided  againft  this  inconveniency.  She  has 
endowed  females  with  a  fet  of  veffels  deitined  for  the  fe- 
cretion  of  a  mild  liquor,  fo  far  conceded  and  animalized 
as  to  be  adapted  to  the  tender  and  flaccid  condition  of  their 
young*  A  fimilar  provifion  of  nourilhment  is  afforded  to 
the  young  vegetable.  For  fome  time  after  the  plume  and 
radicle  have  begun  to  ihoot,  their  texture  is  fo  extremely 
tender,  that  they  are  unable  to  fupport  each  other  without 
fome  foreign  aid.  This  aid  is  afforded  them  by  the  femi- 
nal  leaves.  Thefe  leaves  abforb  dews,  air,  and  other  fine 
fluids,  which  are  concocted  and  aflimilated  in  the  veffels 
of  the  feminal  root,  and  then  conveyed,  in  a  kind  of  ve- 
getable form,  to  the  feeble  veffels  of  the  plume.  Hence, 
it  is  apparent,  that  the  nourifhing  of  young  animals  by 
milk,  and  of  young  vegetables  by  feminal  leaves,  is  the  fame 
inilitution  of  Nature,  and  effected  by  fimilar  inilruments. 

Plants, like  animals, pafs  gradually  from  an  embryo, or  in- 
fant (late, to  thatof  puberty.  Atthisperiod  of  their  exiflence, 
they  have  acquired  that  firmnefs  of  texture,  and  that  evolu- 
tion of  parts,  which  conflitute  the  perfection  of  their  natures, 
and  enable  them  to  produce  beings  every  way  fimilar  to  them- 
feives.  In  both  kingdoms,  the  age  of  puberty  arrives  later 
or  more  early,  according  to  the  difference  of  fpecies.  Some 
animals  live  a  few  months  only.  Many  of  the  infect  tribes 
are  produced,  grow  to  maturity,  propagate  their  kind,  and 
die  in  the  courfe  of  a  fingle  feafon.  Others,  as  feveral 
flies,  beetles,  &c.  exift  two  years.  Thus  animals  have  a 
progreffive  duration  of  life.  The  dormoufe  lives  fix  years, 
the  hare  feven  or  eight,  the  bear  twenty  or  twenty-five,  the 
camel  forty  or  fifty,  the  rhinoceros  feventy  or  eighty,  the 
elephant  two  hundred  ;  and  fome  birds  and  fifties  are  fup- 
pofed  to  exifl  during  three  or  four  centuries.  The  fame 
progreffive  duration  takes  place  among  vegetables.  Some 
plants  are  annual,  as  mod  of  the  efculent  kinds ;  others, 
as  the  hedge-parfley,  the  wild-carrot  *,  the  parfnip  f,  the 
fox-glove  §,  the  fcurvy-grais  |j,  &c.  are  biennial;  others 

exift 

*  Daucus  Carcta.    t  Paftinaca  fatii-a.     {  Digitalis purpurea.     ||  Coc'ulearia. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          33 

exift  three,  five,  feven,  ten,  twenty,  thirty,  fixty,  p.nd  a 
hundred  years ;  and  the  oak  *,  like  the  elephant  and  thole 
birds  and  fifhes  which  are  famed  for  longevity,  continues 
to  adorn  the  foreit  for  feveral  centuries. 

The  manner  by  which  the  nutritious  particles  arc  ex- 
tracted from  food,  is  very  fimilar  in  "  the  animal  and 
the  plant.  In  the  animal,  this  operation  is  performed  Ly 
the  lacleal  veflels,  which  are  diftributed  over  the  Luernal 
furface  of  the  iloinach  and  inte'lines.  In  the  plant,  the 
faerie  ouice  is  performed  by  the  vciTels  of  the  root  and 
leaves.  Hence,  anima-s  are  organized  beings  nouriihed 
by  roots  fituated  within  their  bodies  ;  and  plants  are  or- 
ganized bouies  which  abforb  their  nourifhment  by  roots 
placed  externally.  Befides,  in  all  viviparous  animals,  the 
foetus  is  nourifhed,  not  by  food  taken  in  at  the  mouth, 
but  by  veflels  attached  to  the  placenta.  Thefe  veflels  per- 
form the  fame  office  to  the  fceius,  that  roots  do  to  vege- 
tables. 

Warmth  and  moifture  are  favourable  to  the  production 
of  large  and  juicy  plants  ;  and  the  animals  that  feed  upon 
thefe  fucculent  and  rich  vegetables,  are  iikewife  larger  than 
thofe  which  inhabit  cold  countries,  where  the  plants  are 
fmaller^  more  rigid,  and  contain  fewer  nutritive  particles. 

Some  plants  grow  in  particular  .climates  only.  The 
rubus  arfficus,  a  fpecies  of  bramble,  fo  common  in  Nor- 
way and  Canada,  hardly  endures  the  climate  of  Upfal,  in 
Sweden.  But,  the  alfine  medla^  or  chickweed,  and  feve- 
ral grafles,  are  diifufed  over  almoll  the  whole  globe.  In 
the  fame  manner,  fome  animals,  as  the  camel,  the  rhino- 
ceros, and  the  elephant,  are  produced  in  warm  climates 
only  ;  while  others,  as  the  rein-deer,  glutton,  and  marmot, 
are  confined  to  the  colder  regions  of  the  earth  ;  and  man, 
in  the  animal,  like  Tome  graffes  in  the  vegetable,  kingdom, 
is  univerfal,  and  inhabits  every  climate. 

Some  plants,  as  wed  as  ibme  animals,  are  amphibious, 
as  the  ruih  f  and  the  frog  ;  others  are  parafites,  and  feed 
on  the  juices  they  extract  from  different  fpecies  to  which 
they  adhere.  The  miifeltoe|| ,  for  example,  feeds  upon 
the  oak  \  mod  trees  aiford  nourilhment  to  certain  mofles 

E  and 

*  Qucrcus,  t  Juncus,  j|  Vifcum. 


34  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

and  fungous  plants ;  and  every  animal  is  fed  upon  by  fmal- 
ler  kinds. 

The  growth  of  plants,  like  that  of  animals,  may  be  ac- 
celerated or  retarded  by  promoting  or  checking  their  per- 
fpiration,  and  by  excluding  them  from  proper  exerciie  and 
air.  When  men,  or  other  animals,  are  connried  to  iitu- 
ations  which  prevent  the  free  accefs  of  pure  air,  their 
growth  is  retarded  ;  and  their  fickly  colour  indicates  a  de- 
fed  of  vigour.  Plants,  when  placed  in  fimilar  circum- 
flances,  are  always  weak,  dwarfifh,  and  unnaturally  co- 
loured. But  exercife  is  equally  neceflary  to  the  her/ch 
and  vigour  of  plants,  as  it  is  to  thofe  of  animals.  The 
exercife  of  animals  is  effected  by  various  kinds  of  fponta- 
neous  motion.  Plants  are  likewife  exercifed  by  motion  ; 
but  that  motion  is  not  voluntary :  It  is  communicated  to 
them  by  the  a&ion  of  the  air.  The  agitation  which  they 
receive  from  the  winds  enables  them  to  extend  their  roots, 
prevents  them  from  a  growth  too  rapid,  and,  of  courfe, 
ilrengthens  their  whole  fabric.  It  is  owing  to  the  want 
of  this  agitation,  that  plants  brought  up  in  houfes,  or  in 
other  confined  fituations,  fhoot  out  to  an  unnatural  length; 
that  their  (terns  and  branches  are  always  {lender  and  weak; 
and  that  they  ripen  not  their  fruit  like  thofe  which  are 
expofed  to  the  open  air. 

To  conclude  this  branch  of  the  fubjeQ:,  plants  and  ani- 
mals are  fo  nearly  allied,  that  their  growth  and  nourifh- 
ment  are  not  only  effeded  by  fimilar  inftruments,  but 
fome  parts  of  animal  bodies  evidently  partake  of  a  vege- 
table nature.  Thus,  the  hairs,  the  nails,  the  beaks,  and 
the  horns,  are  a  fpecies  of  vegetables,  as  appears  from 
their  comparative  total  infenfibility,  as  well  as  from  the 
mode  of  their  growth  and  reproduction. 


III. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  35 


III.— DISSEMINATION  AND  DECAY. 


WE  fhall,.next,  take  an  analogical  view  of  the  diflemi- 
nation  and  decay  of  the  animal  and  vegetable. 

The  power  of  reproduction  is  peculiar  to  the  plant  and 
animal.  Each  of  them  is  capable  of  producing  beings 
every  way  fimilar  to  the  parent.  But  the  modes  by  which 
this  fmgular  effect  is  accomplifhed,  are  very  different  in 
appearance.  It  is  our  prefent  purpofe  to  remove  this  ap- 
parent difference,  and  to  fhew  that  animals  and  vegetables 
multiply  their  fpecies  in  a  manner  extremely  analogous. 

Animals  have  long  been  divided  into  viviparous,,  and 
oviparous.  The  one  clafs  produce  their  young  alive, 
the  other  lay  eggs,  which  muft  be  hatched  either  by  the 
heat  of  the  fun,  or  by  that  of  the  mother.  This  divi- 
fion,  though  very  comprehenfive,  is  not  perfect.  Several 
animals  have  lately  been  difcovered  which  are  neither 
viviparous  nor  oviparous  ;  and  there  are  animals  which 
unite  both  thefe  modes  of  multiplication. 

The  viviparous  clafs  comprehends  men,  quadrupeds, 
and  fome  fifties,  reptiles,  and  infects.  The  oviparous  in- 
cludes birds,  fome  reptiles,  and  moft  of  the  infect  tribes. 
But,  the  armed  polypus,  or  hydra  of  Linnaeus,  inftead  of 
being  either  viviparous  or  oviparous,  multiplies  its  fpecies, 
as  formerly  remarked,  by  fending  off  {hoots  from  the  body 
of  the  parent. 

Another  fpecies,  called  the  bell-polypus ,  or  hydra  ft ento- 
rea  of  Linnaeus,  multiplies  by  fplitting  longitudinally. 
In  twenty-four  hours,  thefe  divifions,  which  adhere  to  a 
common  pedicle,  re-fplit,  and  form  four  diftinct  animals. 
Thefe  four,  in  an  equal  time,  again  fplit ;  and  thus  they 
proceed  doubling  their  numbers  daily,  till  they  acquire  a 
figure  fomewhat  refembling  a  nofegay.  The  young  after- 
wards feparate  from  the  parent  flock,  attach  themfelves  to 
the  roots  or  leaves  of  aquatic  plants,  and  each  individual 
gives  rife  to  a  new  colony. 

The 


36  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

The  funnel -fhaped  polypus  multiplies  by  fplitting  tranf- 
verfely.  Of  the  individuals,  accordingly,  which  proceed 
from  [his  divifion,  on^  has  the  old  head  and  a  new  tail, 
and  the  other  a  new  head  and  the  old  tail.  The  fuperior 
divilion  fwims  off,  and  fixes  itieif  tofome  other  fubflance  ; 
but  the  inferior  divifion  remains  attached  to  the  former 
pedicle. 

The  dart-millepes  affords  another  example  of  multipli- 
cation by  fpontaneous  Reparation.  This  iniecl:  divides, 
about  two-thirds  below  the  head,  into  two  diftind  and 
perfect  animals  ;  and  it  feerns  to  poffels  no  other  mode  of 
continuing  the  fpecies. 

The  multiplication  of  the  various  animalcules  which 
appear  in  infulions  of  animal  and  vegetable  fulftances, 
loR£  occupied  the  attention,  and  eluded  the  refearches  of 
philofophers.  This  difcovery  of  the  increafe  of  iome 
larger  animals  by  fpentaneous  divificn,  gave  rife  to  the 
conjecture,  that  thefe  microfcopic  animalcules  might  mul- 
tiply their  numbers  in  a  f  milar  manner.  1  his  crnje£ure 
was  communicated  to  M.  de  Saufiure  in  a  letter  from 
Bonnet,  \^ho  received  an  anlwer,  dated  at  Genoa,  Sep- 
tember 28,  1769,  to  the  following  purpofe. 

*  What  you  propofe  as  a  doubt,'  fays  M.  de  Saumire, 
c  I  have  verified  by  inconteflible  experiments,  namely, 
c  that  infufion-animalcules  multiply  by  continued  divifi- 
c  ons  and  fubdivifions.  Thofe  roundim  or  oval  animal- 

*  cules  that  have  no  beak,  or  hook,  on  the  fore  part  of 

*  their  bodies,  divide  tranfverfely.     A  kind  of  ftriclure, 

*  or  ftrangulation,  begins  about  the  middle  of  the  body, 
4  which  gradually  increafes,  till  the  two  parts  adhere  by  a 

*  fmall  thread  only.     Then  both  parts  make  repeated  ef- 
6  forts,  till  the  divifion  is  completed.     Forfome  time  after 
6  feparation,  the  two  animals  remain  in  a  feemingly  torpid 

*  ftate.     They    afterwards  begin  to  fwim   about  brifkly. 
c  Each  part  is  on^one  half  the  fize  of  the  whole  :  But, 
6  they  loon  acquire  the  magnitude  peculiar  to  the  fpecies, 

*  and  multiply  by  fmiilar  divifions.' c  To  obviate  every 

c  doubt,'  continues   our  aothor,  '  I  put  a  fingle  animal- 

*  cule  into  a  drop  of  water,  which  fplit  before  my  eyes. 

*  Next  day,  I  had  five,  the  day  after,  fixty,  and,  on  the 

«  third 


OF    NATtJRAL    HISTORY.  37 

4  third  day,  their  number  was  fo  great,  that  it  was  impof- 

*  fible  to  count  them  *. 

4  Another  fpecies,  with  a  beak,  or  horn,  on  the  fore 

*  part  of  its  body,  which  I  obtained  from  an  infufion  of 
r  hemp-feed,  multiplied  likewife  by  divifion,  but  in  a  m?.n- 
4  ner  ftill  more  fingular  than  the  former.     This  animal- 

*  cule,  when  about  to  divide,  attaches  itfelf  to  the  bottom 
4  of  the  infufion,  contracts  its   body,  which  is  naturally 
4  oblong,  into  a  fpherical  form,  fo  that  the  beak  entirely 
4  difappears.     It  then  begins  to  move  brifkly  round,  fome- 
4  times  from  right  to  left,  and  fometimes  from  left  to  right, 
c  the  centre  of  motion  being  always  fixed.     Towards  the 
4  end,  its  motion  accelerates,  and,  inftead  of  a  uniform 
4  fphere,  two  cro/s-like  divifions  begin  to  appear.     Soon 
4  after,  the  creature  is  greatly  agitated,  and  fplits  into  four 
4  animalcules  perfedly  fimilar,  though  fmaller  than  that 
4  from  which  they  were  produced.     Thefe  four  increafe 
4  to  the  ufual  fize,  arid  each,  in  its  turn,  fubdivides  into 
4  other  four  f,'  &c, 

The  beauties  of  Nature  have  been  juftly  celebrated  in 
the  uniformity  of  her  productions.  This  uniformity  was 
early  remarked,  and  gave  rife  to  the  ancient  divifion  of 
animals  into  viviparous  and  oviparous,  which  continued  to 
be  adopted, as  an  univerfal  maxim,  till  within  thefe  hundred 
years.  Before  this  period,  it  was  believed  by  philofophers, 
that  all  animals  were  either  brought  forth  alive,  or  hatched 
from  eggs. .  Among  the  ancients,  indeed,  and  even  down 
to  the  time  of  the  celebrated  Redi,  this  maxim  included 
chiefly  the  more  perfect  animals ;  for,  with  regard  to  mo  ft 
of  the  infecl  tribes,  they  imagined  that  thefe  were  produ- 
ced by  putrefaction,  and  the  admixture  of  particular  kinds 
of  matter.  But,  Redi,  by  a  feries  of  unqueflionable  ex- 
periments, exploded  the  doclrine  of  the  equivocal  gene- 
ration of  infeds  ;  and  then  the  maxim,  without  farther 
inveftigation,  was  extended  to  the  whole  animal  kingdom. 
Redi's  experiments  and  remarks  turned  the  attention  of 
philofophers  to  the  minuter  tribes  of  animals.  In  the 
courfe  of  a  few  years,  accordingly,  feveral  eminent  men 

arofe. 

*  La  Palingenefie  Phi!ofophi<j"e,  par  C.  Bonnet,  torn.  I.  p.  428,  429.     S-. 
t  Idem,  p.  43®.     S. 


38  THE    PHIL-OS  OPH  Y 

arofe.  Reaumur,  Bonnet,  Trembley,  Ellis,  Spallanzani, 
and  a  multitude  of  other  writers,  opened  new  views  with 
regard  to  the  manners  and  cejonomy  of  animated  beings. 
M.  Bonnet  has  furnimed  inconteftible  evidence,  that  feve- 
ral  fpecies  of  the  puceron,  or  vine-fretter,  are  both  ovi- 
parous and  viviparous  *.  In  fummer,  thefe  infedts  bring 
forth  their  young  alive  ;  but,  in  autumn,  they  depofit 
eggs  upon  the  bark  and  branches  of  trees.  Here,  the  in- 
tention of  Nature  is  apparent.  The  puceron  is  unable  to 
furvive  the  winter  colds  ;  and,  therefore,  though  vivipa- 
rous during  the  warm  months,  the  fpecies  could  not  be 
continued  without  this  wife  provifion.  The  puceron,  it 
fhould  appear,  is  naturally  difpofed  to  produce  live  young. 
The  foetus  is  inclofed  in  a  membrane,  which,  like  that  of 
the  larger  animals,  burfls  before  exclufion.  But,  when 
the  cold  feafon  commences,  the  general  texture  of  the 
animals,  as  well  as  of  the  membranes  inclofmg  the  foetus, 
becomes  more  firm  and  tenacious  ;  and  this,  peihaps,  is 
the  phyfical  realbn  why  they  are  viviparous  in  fummer, 
and  oviparous  in  autumn.  Many  other  ilies  are  known  to 
be  viviparous.  Upon  farther  examination,  all  thefe  will 
probably  be  difco\;ered  to  be  alfo  oviparous  f. 

The  puceron  exhibits  another  phenomenon  ftill  more 
finguiar.  The  maxim,  that  multiplication  prefuppofed 
impregnation  by  fexual  embraces,  was  formerly  thought 
to  be  univerfal.  Neither  fhould  the  reception  of  this  max- 
im be  regarded  as  a  matter  of  wonder  ;  for  it  was  founded 
on  a  very  general  and  flrong  analogy.  But,  the  following 
fads  {how,  that  Nature,  though  uniform  in  many  fteps  of 
her  pro  n*eis,  is  not  invariably  limited  to  the  fame  mode 
of  operation. 

On  the  2oth  day  of  May,  M.  Bonnet  took  a  young 
puceron,  the  moment  after  dropping  from  the  womb  of 
its  mother,  and  fhut  it  up  in  a  glafs  veffel,  to  prevent  all 
poflibility  of  communication  with  any  individual  of  the 
fpecies,  A  fpri'4  of  the  tree  on  which  the  animal  was 
produced,  fuppli^d  it  with  nouriihment.  The  creature 
changed  its  fkin  four  times,  namely,  on  the  23d,  26th, 

29th, 

*  Trait"  djlnfcfh>lo»ie,  par  C.  Bonnet,  torn.  i.  p. 194 — 202.       S. 
t  See  Reaumur,  to  in.  8.  edit.   I2mo,  p.  153.  ctjcq.     S. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          39 

29th,  and  31(1  days  of  the  fame  month.  After  a  minute 
detail  of  circumftances,  M.  Bonnet  informs  us,  that  his 
imprifoned  puceron  grew  with  rapidity;  that,  on  the  ift 
day  of  June,  it  brought  forth  ;  and  that,  from  this  day 
to  the  2 1  ft,  it  produced  no  lefs  than  95  young,  all  full  of 
life  and  vigour  *.  He  frequently  repeated  this  experi- 
ment, and  it  was  always  followed  with  the  fame  event. 

M.  Bonnet,  fufpecling  that  a  fingle  impregnation  might 
influence  both  the  mother  and  her  immediate  offspring, 
refolved  to  obviate  every  difficulty.  For  this  purpofe,  he 
confined,  in  feparate  glaffes,  the  young  of  fucceffive  births, 
as  they  dropped  from  their  mothers.  Each  of  thefe,  how- 
ever, were  equally  fertile,  though  he  continued  the  expe- 
riment to  the  ninth  generation  from  the  original  parent  f. 

Facls  of  this  kind,  which  feem  to  interrupt  the  ordi- 
nary current  of  Nature,  mould  infpire  philofophers  with 
caution.  They  mould  create  reverence  for  fuch  of  her 
operations  as  are  already  known ;  but,  they  mould  like- 
wife  check  that  rafh  fpirit  which  too  frequently  draws  un- 
limited conclufions,  before  the  fubjecl  be  fully  inveftigat- 
ed.  Of  all  inductions  regarding  the  hiftory  of  Nature, 
the  neceflity  of  fexual  commerce  for  multiplying  the  fpe- 
cies  appeared  to  be  the  mod  general  and  the  moft  legiti- 
mate. The  oeconomy  of  the  puceron,  however,  demon- 
flrates,  that  even  this  law  is  not  indifpenfable,  and  that 
Nature  has  the  power  of  changing  her  fleps,  and  of  ac- 
complifhing  the  fame  purpofes  by  various  means. 

Having  enumerated  the  different  modes  by  which  ani- 
mals multiply  their  fpec5es,  I  mall  next  mow,  that  the 
multiplication  of  vegetables  is  extremely  analogous. 

The  viviparous,  as  well  as  the  oviparous  animals,  are 
fuppofed  to  proceed  from  eggs,  with  this  difference,  that 
the  young  of  the  viviparous  are  hatched  in  the  uterus 
previous  to  their  exclufion. 

Many  (hiking  analogies  fubfift  between  the  eggs  of  ani- 
mals and  the  feeds  of  plants.  When  placed  in  proper 
ciicumftances,  they  both  produce  young  every  way  fimi- 

lar 

*  Bonnet,  Traite  d'Infeftologie,  torn.  1.  p,  39.  ;  and  Reaumur,  torn.  12. 
P-  353-  S. 

t  Idem,  torn.  i.  p.  74.  etfeq,     S. 


40  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

lar  to  the  parents.  To  accomplish  this  wonderful  effed, 
the  egg  requires  impregnation,  and  heat.  Moifture, 
warmth,  and  foil,  or  fome  fimilar  matrix,  are  neceflary 
for  the  exclufion  of  the  young  plant.  This  analogy 
has  been  extended  much  farther  by  Linnaeus,  and  other 
fupporters  of  the  fexual  fyftem  of  plants.  They  main- 
tain, that  impregnation  is  equally  indifpenfable  to  the  ve- 
getation of  the  feed,  as  to  the  fertility  of  the  e.>;g.  But, 
as  this  doclrine  will  be  difcufled  when  we  come  to  treat 
of  £.-xes  in  general,  we  fhall  here  difmifs  it  without  far- 
r  remark. 

are  not  only  analogous  to  feeds,  in  their  general 
de'Hnation  of  reproducing  individuals,  and  continuing 
th •:  fpecies,  but  there  is  a  great  fimilarity  in  the  (trudure 
and  ufes  of  their  refpedive  organs. 

-The  internal  parts  of  the  egg  are  covered  with  a  cruft, 
or  ihell,  and  two  membranes.  Befide  thefe,  the  yoke  is 
included  in  a  feparate  membrane.  When  the  two'  firft 
membranes  are  removed,  the  white  appears  every  way 
inventing  the  yoke.  In  the  white,  or  rather  on  the  mem- 
brane of  the  ydke,  a  fmall  cicatrice  is  diicernible,  in  the 
centre  of  which0  is  the  punctum  fallens.,  or  embryo  of  the 
future  animal.  After  two  or  three  days  incubation,  this 
punctum  fallens  becomes  red,  and  moots  out  blood-veflels, 
which  are,  difperfed  through  the  yoke,  in  the  fame  man- 
ner as  the  veifels  of  a  foetus  are  diflributed  over  the  pla- 
centa. 

A  feed  is  likewife  covered  with  a  (hell,  or  cruftaceous 
membrane.  Another  membrane  inverts  the  whole  kernel, 
or  pulpy  lobes  of  the  feed.  Each  lobe,  like  the  yoke  of  the 
egg,  is  involved  in  a  feparate  membrane.  In  every  feed 
there  is  alfo  a  fmall  cicatrice,  or  aperture,  through  which 
the  young  plant  iifues.  Immediately  under  this  cicatrice, 
the  plume,  or  future  plant,  is  difcernible,  refemblirig  the 
punctum  fallens  of  the  egg.  The  branches  of  the  radicle  pro- 
ceed from  this  plume,  and  are  difperfed  through  the  fub- 
ftarice  of  the  lobes,  in  the  fame  manner  as  the  blood-veflels 
iifue  from  the  punctum  fallens  of  the  egg,  and  are  diftributed 
over  the  yoke.  It  is  by  the  pulp  of  the  lobes  that  the 
radicle  and  plume  are  nourifhed,  till  the  onefhoots  down 

into 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          41 

into  the  foil,  and  the  other  mounts  above  the  furface. 
In  feeds,  there  is  nothing  analogous  to  the  white  ot  an 
egg.  Such  a  provifion  would  have  been  fuperfluous ;  for 
the  earth,  in  which  the  feeds  are  to  germinate,  mult  al- 
ways be  moiit,  ptherwife  the  young  plant  could  not  re- 
ceive nourifhment,  after  ifluing  from  the  feed.  Betides, 
the  eggs  of  fifties  have  no  white,  becaufe  they  are  perpe- 
tually moiftened  with  water. 

The  analogies  arifing  from  the  multiplication  of  ani- 
mals and  plants,  by  means  of  eggs  and  feeds,  are  the  mod 
common,  and  the  moil  obvious.  Eggs  and  feeds  are  evi- 
dently organs  formed  on  the  fame  plan,  and  deftined  by 
Nature  to  anfwer  the  fame  general  intention  :  But  the 
multiplication  of  plants,  as  well  as  that  of  animals,  is 
not  confined  folely  to  one  mode. 

The  young  of  viviparous  animals,  though  they  proba- 
bly originate  from  fmall  eggs,  are  not  brought  forth  till 
they  have  acquired  a  certain  age  and  nrmneis  of  texture. 
It  may  be  thought,  that  there  is  no  multiplication  of  plants 
which  has  any  refemblance  to  that  of  viviparous  animals. 
We  fliould  reflect,  however,  that  plants  can  multiply   by 
buds.     Now,  a  bud  has  no  analogy,  either  in  texture  or 
appearance,  to  a  feed.     Buds  arife  from  the  ftems  or  bran- 
ches of  vegetables.     One  object  in  their  formation  is  to 
produce   leaves   and  branches,  as  well  as  to  extend  the 
length  of  the  trunk  or  iiern.     But,  they  are  likewife  en- 
dowed with  the  faculty  of  reproducing  new  individuals. 
In  this  refpect,  trees  and  flirubs  may  be  contidered  as  vi- 
viparous plants  ;  becaufe  they  produce  out  of  their  own 
bodies  an  organ,  which,  though  differing  in  every  view 
from  a  feed,  is  brought  forth  alive,  and,  when  properly 
cheriflied,  is  converted  into  a  being  perfectly  fimilar  to 
the  parent,  and  capable  of  continuing  its  fpecies.     The 
embryo  of  a  bud  commences  itsexiftence  under 'the  bark. 
Here  it  remains,  for  fome  time,  inclofed  in  membranous 
coverings,   and  attached  to   the  bark  by  minute  fibres, 
which  convey  to  it  a  ncuriiliment  fuited  to  its  condition. 
When  arrived  at  a  certain  fize  and  confidence,  it  pierces 
the  bark,  and  moots  out  into  the  open  air.     If  allowed  to 
temain  on  the  parent,  it  foori  burfls  through  its  mem- 

F 


42  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

branes,  and,  in  time,  gives  rife  to  a  new  branch  :  But, 
\vhen  detached  from  the  parent,  and  placed  in  proper  cir- 
cumftances,  it  becomes  a  new  individual  of  the  fame 
fpccies. 

Bulbous-rooted  plants  furnifh  a  ftill  flronger  analogy 
between  the  increale  of  viviparous  animals  and  that  of 
vegetables.  In  the  end  of  autumn,  if  the  coats  of  any 
bulbous  root  be  carefully  diffected,  the  entire  pla'ntin  mi- 
niature will  appear  in  the  centre  of  the  root  *.  In  fpring, 
this  imall  plant,  like  a  foetus  inclofed  in  the  uterus,  pier- 
ces the  coats  of  which  the  root  confifts,  and  gradually 
grows  till  it  flowers,  ripens  its  feeds,  and  dies  at  the  ap- 
proach of  winter,  when  a  new  plant  is  again  formed  in 
the  old  root.  Here  we  have  an  example  of  the  multipli- 
cation of  plants  fimilar  to  that  of  the  puceron  ;  but  the 
order  of  time  is  reverfed.  The  puceron  is  viviparous  in 
fummer,  and  oviparous  in  autumn  ;  but,  bulbous-rooted 
plants  may  be  confidered  as  oviparous  in  fummer,  and 
viviparous  iu  autumn. 

The  fame  analogy  is  to  be  traced  in  thofe  roots  which 
have  what  are  called  eyes9  like  the  potato.  Thefe  eyes  are 
all  plants  in  miniature,  which  live  in  that  (late  during 
the  winter,  and,  when  committed  to  the  foil,  come  to 
maturity  in  fummer. 

There  are  (till  other  modes  of  multiplying  common  to 
the  animal  and  vegetable.  Many  plants  are  multiplied  by 
fuckers,  flips,  and  cuttings. 

The  animal  kingdom  furnifhes  examples  of  all  thefe 
modes  of  multiplication.  The  fuckers  of  plants  have  an 
exact  analogy  to  the  moots  of  a  polypus.  Whenfeparated 
from  the  parent,  the  fucker  bncomes  a  perfect  plant,  and 
the  fhoot  of  the  polypus  a  perfect  animal.  Plants  are 
capable  of  multiplication  by  flips  and  cuttings :  And  the 
portions  of  a  polypus,  however  fmall,  or  when  cut  in  any 
direction,  reproduce,  and  become  perfect  animals  of  the 
fame  fpecies. 

But,  fome  fpecies  of  the  polypus,  the  dart-millepes,  and 
feveral  animalcules  which  appear  in  infufions  of  animal 

and 

*  M.  Mariottc  and  many  other  writers,  have  feen  in  the  bulb  of  the  tulip,  not 
only  the  leaves,  but  even  fhe  flowers,  and  the  flamina. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  43 

and  vegetable  fubftances,  multiply  by  fplittingv  or  fpon- 
taneous  feparation.  Here  the  analogy  between  the  ani- 
mal and  vegetable  might  be  fuppofed  to  fail.  The  water- 
lentil,  however,  a  fmall  plant,  which  covers  the  furface  of 
ftagnating  pools,  multiplies  its  fpecies  by  detaching  thin 
films  from  the  under  fide  of  the  leaf.  Thefe  films,  or 
tender  leaves,  produce  roots,  and  vegetate  into  a  regular 
plant.  . 

We  mujfl  not  difmifs  this  fubject  till  another  analogy  be 
unfolded.  .  All  animals  have  feafons  peculiar  to  their  re- 
fpe&ive  kinds.  Some  of  the  larger  animals  produce  in 
the  fpring,  others  in  fummer,  others  in  autumn,  and 
others  in  winter.  With  regard  to  the  infect  tribes,  their 
feafons  are  ftill  more  various.  Every  month,  every  week 
of  the  year,  gives  birth  to  different  fpecies.  The  feafons 
of  plants  are  diverfified  in  afimilar  manner.  The  growth 
of  different  vegetables  is  distributed  over  the  whole  year. 
Particular  tribes  faring  up  at  the  fame  uniform  periods. 
In  this  beautiful  diverfity  of  arrangement,  the  intentions 
of  Nature  are  evident.  If  all  plants  were  to  rufh  forward 
at  the  fame  time,  they  would  infallibly  choke  each  other. 
The  furface  of  the  earth  could  not  afford  them  room. 
Nature  has, therefore,  wifely  ordained,  that  the  earth  fhould 
always  be  covered  with  plants  :  But,  me  has  alfo  ordain- 
ed, that  particular  tribes  fliould  die  at  ftated  periods,  to 
make  way  for  the  exigence  of  others.  The  fame  incon- 
venience would  happen,  if  the  production  of  all  animals, 
and  particularly  that  vaft  number  of  fpecies,  and  that 
immenfe  profufion  of  individuals,  to  which  the  infect 
tribes  give  birth,  were  to  take  place  at  one  period.  The 
air  would  be  fo  crowded  with  noxious  creatures,  that  nei- 
ther man  nor  the  larger  animals  could  poffibly  exiit.  Be- 
fides,  the  fpecies  which  feed  upon  particular  plants,  if  they 
were  produced  at  a  time  when  thefe  plants  did  not  flou- 
rilh,  would  infallibly  perifh  for  want  of  food.  In  Lap- 
land, where  the  duration  of  heat  is  extremely  fhort,  the 
whole  infecls,  which  inhabit  that  dreary  and  barren  region, 
are  produced  in  a  few  weeks.  Though  the  number  of 
fpecies,  compared  with  that  of  the  more  prolific  climates, 
be  very  limited,  the  inconvenience  is  feverely  felt.  But, 

every 


44  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

every  natural  evil  is  accompanied  with  fome  advantage* 
The  rein  deer,  upon  which  the  exigence  of  the  Lapland- 
c'neny  depends,  are  tormented  by  the  fwarms  of  flies. 
To  avoid  their  numberlefs  enemies,  thefe  animals  leave 
tjie  .  :  ies,  and  afcend  the  mountains,  where  the  cold  is 
tc-:-  ,  ;at  for  the  flies  to  follow.  In  thefe  lofty  regions, 
the  ichi-rleer  f«jed  during  the  hot  feafon,  and  return  to 
the  valli'-s  after  the  cold  has  deilroyed  the  myriads  of  in- 
fects. This  forced  migration  has  two  good  effe&s  :  It 
both  prefer ves  the  health  of  the  rein-deer,  and  the  vege- 
tables ia  the  vallies,  which  otherwife  would  have  been 
premature']  y  exhauiied. 

The  operation  of  engrafting  was  long  thought  to  be 
peculiar  to  the  vegetable  kingdom.  But,  M.  Trembley 
found,  that  feveral  fpecies  of  the  fr em-water  polypus  could 
fuecefsfuliy  undergo  this  wonderful  proceis.  Since  his 
time,  it  has  been  difcovered.  that  the  atfinia,  or  fea-nettle, 
is  iikcwlie  capable  of  being  engrafted  to  an  individual  of 
the  fame  or  of  a  different  fpecies.  In  all  thefe  instances, 
the  portions  of  the  divided  animals  grow  together,  and 
become  diirtin£t  individuals. 

Having  traced  the  general  analogies  between  the  ftruc- 
ture  and  ceconcmy  of  the  animal  and  vegetable,  from  the 
rudiments  of  their  exiftence  till  they  have  acquired  full 
rii/.iurity,  and  performed  the  neceffary  office  of  multiply- 
ing their  fpecies,  we  proceed  to  the  lad  and  only  melan- 
choly branch  of  this  fubjecl,  the  unavoidable  decay  and 
death  of  every  fucceffive  individual  in  both  kingdoms. 

It  is  an  invariable  law  of  Nature,  that  all  organized 
bodies  mould  have  a  confiant  tendency  to  diiiolution. 
But,  the  periods  of  their  exiltence  vary  according  to  the 
fpecies.  Previous  to  aclual  refolution,  plants  as  well  as 
animals  are  fubjecl  to  a  number  of  analogous  aiieclions 
and  difeafes.  When  over-heated,  plants  fhow  evident 
marks  of  languor  and  fatigue  :  Their  leaves  become  flac- 
cid, their  ircins"  and  branches  bend  toward  the  earth, 
their  juices  evaporate,  and  their  whole  texture  afiumes 
the  appearances  of  \veaknefs  and  decay.  The  application 
of  too  great  a  degree  of  cold  makes  the  flowers,  the  leaves, 

the 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  45 

the  bark,  and  even  the  woody  fibres,  fhrivel  and  contract 
in  their  dimensions.  When  deprived  of  proper  light  and 
air.,  their  colours  fade,  and  they  foon  acquire  a  lurid  and 
iickly  afpeft.  They  are  likewife  fubject  to  be  ftarved  for 
want  of  liourifliment.  The  growth  of  plants,  as  well  as 
that  of  animals,  is  checked  by  fcanty  fupplies  of  food. 
When  the  foil  or  fituation  is  unkindly,  vegetables  are  al- 
ways weak  and  dwarfifh,  and  their  prolific  powers  are  di- 
minilhed.  They  may  alfo  be  poifoned  by  the  abforption 
of  fluids  hofcile  to  their  conflitution.  Befide  thefe  gene- 
ral affections,  common  to  the  plant  and  animal,  vegeta- 
bles are  injured,  and  often  killed,  by  particular  difeafes. 

Some  difeafes  attack  the  leaves  only,  and  produce  fpots 
of  various  colours,  rugofities,puflules,  galls,  &c.  Others 
are  peculiar  to  the  flowers  and  fruit,  and  often  occafion 
barrennefs  for  a  feafon  ;  and  fometimes  this  fterility  con- 
tinues during  the  exiftence  of  the  plant.  Others  aflfault 
the  vifcera,  or  internal  organs,  and  give  rife  to  obftruc- 
tions,  tumors,  and  a  gradual  refolution  and  corruption  of 
the  whole  fabrick.  Many  of  the  difeafes  of  plants  are 
produced  by  the  infed  tribes.  Their  wounds  and  depre- 
dations are  not  confined  to  particular  parts,  but  extend 
from  the  root  to  the  ftem,  branches,  leaves,  flowers,  and 
fruit.  Infecls  not  only  injure  the  fubflance  of  plants,  but, 
by  feeding  on  their  juices,  deprive  them  of  a  part  of  their 
nourifhment,  and  occafion  various  difeafes  or  changes  in 
their  organization.  Other  difeafes  of  plants  derive  their 
origin  from  change  of  climate,  from  miafmata  or  noxious 
vapours*  in  the  atmofphere,  and  from  improper  culture. 
When  wounded  by  external  injuries,  vegetables  difcharge 
their  biood  in  copious  ftreams.  If  the  wound  be  not 
mortal,  the  fibres  on  all  fides  gradually  flioot  out,  and 
clofe  the  fradure  by  a  callous  fubftance. 

From  this  general  enumeration,  it  is  obvious,  that  the 
difeafes  of  plants  are  not  only  fnnilar  to  thofe  of  animals, 
but  proceed  from  the  fame  caufes.  In  both  kingdoms, 
fome  difeafes  are  only  partial  or  fuperficial,  and  are  cured 
either  by  Nature,  or  by  the  afliftance  of  art.  Others  are 
mortal,  and  fucceeded  by  a  total  putrefaction  or  decom- 
pofition  of  the  individual. 

But, 


46  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

But,  though  plants  fhould  efcape  the  numberlefs  dif- 
cafes  which  daily  threaten  them,  they  have  no  defence 
againfl  the  flower  approaches  of  old  age,  and  its  unavoid- 
able confequence,  death.  In  progrefs  of  time,  the  veffels 
gradually  harden  and  lofe  their  tone.  The  juices  no  long- 
er move  with  equal  celerity  as  in  youth.  They  are  not 
abforbed  with  the  fame  precition.  They  at  laft  ftagnate, 
and  corrupt.  This  corruption  is  foon  communicated  to 
the  veifels  in  which  the  juices  are  contained,  and  produces 
a  total  ceffation  of  all  the  vital  functions. 

The  life  of  animals  is  diverfified  by  a  number  of  fuccef- 
five  changes.  Infancy,  youth,  manhood,  old  age,  are  cha- 
raclerifed  by  imbecility,  beauty,  fertility,  dotage.  All 
thefe  viciffitudes  are.confpicuous  in  the  vegetable  world. 
Weak  and  tender  in  infancy,  beautiful  and  vigorous  in 
youth,  robuil  and  fruitful  in  manhood,  and,  when  old 
age  approaches,  the  head  droops,  the  fprings  of  life  dry 
up,  and  the  tottering  vegetable,  like  the  animal,  returns 
to  that  dud  from  which  it  fprung. 

Upon  the  whole  ;  by  taking  a  retrofpe£live  view  of  the 
extreme  difficulty  of  afcertaining  the  boundaries  which 
diftmguiih  the  animal  from  the  vegetable,  and  of  the  fimi- 
larities  in  their  flruclure  and  organs,  in  their  growth  and 
nourifhment,  in  their  difTemination  and  decay,  it  is  ap- 
parent, that  both  thefe  kingdoms  conftitute  the  fame  order 
of  beings,  and  that  Nature,  in  the  formation  of  them,  has 
operated  upon  one  great  and  common  model  *. 

CHAP. 

*  The  numerous  attempts  which  have  made  hy  nnturaliRs  to  define  the  boun- 
daries which  terminate  the  chain  of  animals,  and  to  explain  the  nature  and  attri- 
butes of  the  vegetable  feries,  confidered  as  a  clafs,  or  order,  of  living  beings  efleri- 
tially  differing  from  animals,  have,  hitherto,  as  our  author  has  obferved,  proved 
*'  abortive."  Even  in  the  pi  efent  improved  date  of Natural  Knowledge',  in  an  age  of 
which  philofophy  and  wifdom,  next  to  theloveof  freedom,  are  the  moft  prominent 
anddifrinfrive  features,  our  labours  have  not  been  able  to  conduft  us  to  an  acquaint- 
ance with  any  marks,  or  characters,  which  decidedly  diflinguifh  the  world  of  ani- 
mals and  .vegetables.  A  late  writer,  however,  Dr.Hedwig,  of  Leipfic,  who  to 
the  knowledge  of  the  Eotamjl  unites  the  talents  of  the  Philofopher,  is  of  opinion, 
that  ihefe  two  cl  ,{fes  of  beings  are  moft  unequivocally  diftinguifhed  from  each 
other  by  this  circurnftance,  that  the *  Jlamma,  or  male  organs,  of  vegetables  perifh  im- 
mediately after  they  have  performed  the  important  office  of  fecundation,  whilft 
the  fame  organs  in  animals  furvive  this  function,  and,  in  moft  cafes,  are  capable  of 
repeating  ir.  I  do  not  admit  the  folidity  oi  this  difiinftion.  1  mean  not  to  aflert 
that  animals  and  vegetables  conftitute  but  c:;c  great  family  of  bangs.  In  ;he eye  of 

Nature, 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          47 


CHAP.       II. 

Of  the  organs  and  general  Jlru  ft  ure  of  Animals — A  Jhort 
'view  of  the  external  and.  internal  parts  of  the  human  body 
— This  ftrufture  compared  with  thofe  of  Quadrupeds  ^  Birds  > 
Fi/hes,  and  Infeds — How  far  peculiarities  of  ftrufture  arc 
connected  with  peculiarities  of  manners  and  difpofitions. 


IN  treating  of  this  fubjecl,  it  is  not  intended  to  dive 
into  the  depths  of  anatomical  refearch.  On  the  con- 
trary, I  fhall  exhibit  fhort  views  only  of  the  general  ftruc- 
ture  and  organization  of  the  various  clafies  of  animated 
beings,  from  man,  who  is  the  mod  perfect  animal  of 
which  we  have  any  knowledge,  down  to  the  infect  tribes. 
Confidering  man,  therefore,  as  the  ftandard  of  animal 
perfection,  we  mail  inflitute  frequent  comparifons,  and 
mark  peculiar  diflinclions,  between  him  and  the  brute 
creation,  both  with  regard  to  form,  manners,  and  faga- 
city.  By  following  this  plan,  I  hope  I  mall  be  enabled  to 
render  a  fubjecl:  which,  at  firfl  fight,  may  have  a  forbid- 
ding afpecl,  both  interefting  and  agreeable. 


STRUCTURE    OF    MAN. 


THE  bones  may  be  regarded  as  the  baft's  upon  which 
the  human  body  is  conftructed.  The  fpine,  or  back-bone, 
confifts  of  a  number  of  vertebras,  or  fmall  bones,  con- 
nected together  by  cartilages,  articulations,  and  ligaments. 
In  the  centre  ef  each  vertebra  there  is  a  foramen,  or  hole, 
for  the  lodgement  and  continuation  of  the  fpinal  marrow, 

which 

Nature,  there  is,  moft  probably,  a  diftin&ion  between  thefe  objefts  ;  but  this  dif- 
tin&ion  Man  has  never  been  able  to  define .  The  difcovery  is,  poflibly,  referved 
for  fome  happy  genius,  in  an  age  more  enlightened  by  fcience. 


48  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

which  extends  from  the  brain  to  the  rump.  From  thefc 
vertebrae  the  arched  bones  called  ribs  proceed  ;  and  feven 
of  them  join  the  bread-bone  on  each  fide,  where  they  ter- 
minate in  cartilages,  and  form  the  cavity  of  the  thorax, 
or  cheft.  This  cavity  contains  the  heart  and  lungs  ;  and 
the  cefophagus,  or  gullet,  paffes  through  it  to  reach  the 
ftomach.  The  five  lower  ribs,  with  a  number  of  inulcles, 
form  another  cavity  termed  the  abdomen,  or  belly,  in  which 
are  contained  the  ftomach,  the  bowels,  the  omenium,  or 
cawl,  the  liver,  the  gall-bladder,  the  fpleen,  the  pancreas, 
and  the  kidneys.  The  cheft  and  abdomen  are  feparated 
from  each  other  by  the  diaphragm,  or  midriff.  The  lower 
part  of  this  laft  cavity  contains  the  bladder  of  urine,  and 
the  reclum,  or  termination  of  the  intedines.  Befide 
thefe,  in  females,  the  pelvis  includes  the  uterus  and  its 
appendages.  This  part  of  the  cavity  is  formed  by  theos  fa. 
crum,  or  termination  of  the  back-bone,  and  the  two  oifa 
innonimata. 

The  bones  of  the  cranium  and  face  are  very  numerous. 
They  are  connected  together  by  means  of  futures,  arti- 
culations, and  membranes.  The  bones  of  the  cranium 
include  the  brain,  and  its  two  membranous  coverings, 
called  the  pia  and  dura  mater,  and  the  medulla  oblongata, 
of  which  laft  the  fpinal  marrow  is  a  prolongation.  The 
bones  of  the  upper  and  under  jaw  form  another  cavity 
for  the  reception  of  the  tongue  and  organs  of  fpeech. 

The  only  remaining  bones  are  thofe  of  the  upper  and 
lower  extremities.  The  moulder  and  collar  bones  arti- 
culate with  the  top  of  the  arm  and  breaft-bone.  The 
arm-bone,  or  os  hiimerl,  is  joined  to  the  two  bones  of  the 
fore-arm,  called  ulna  and  radius,  and  thefe  laft  to  the 
bones  of  the  carpus,  or  wrift,  by  means  of  articulations 
and  firm  membranes.  To  the  bones  of  the  wrift,  thofe 
of  the  metacarpus  and  fingers  are  attached  in  a  fimilar 
manner. 

With  regard  to  the  lower  extremities,  the  thigh-bone 
articulates  above  with  the  hip-bone,  and  below  with  the 
leg-bone  and  the  rotula,  or  knee-pan.  The  leg,  like  the 
fore-arm,  is  compofed  of  two  bones,  the  tibia  and  fibula, 
which  articulate  with  each  other,  and  with  the  tarfal,  or 

heel- 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          49 

heel-bones  of  the  foot ;  and  to  thefe  laft  the  metatarfal 
bones,  and  thofe  of  the  toes,  are  joined, 

From  this  outline,  fome  idea  may  be  formed  of  the 
human  ikeleton.  The  other  parts  of  which  our  bodies 
are  compofed,  fliall  be  mentioned  in  the  fame  curfory 
mariner. 

The  mufcular  part  of  the  human  fabrick  confifts  of 
numerous  bundles  of  flemy  fibres.  Each  bundle,  or  dif- 
tincl  mufcle,  is  inclofed  in  a  cellular  membrane,  by  which 
means  they  may  be  raifed,  or  feparated  from  one  another, 
by  the  hand  of  the  anatomift.  They  are  inferted,  by 
flrong  tendinous  extremities,  into  the  different  bones  of 
which  the  fkeleton  is  compofed,  and,  by  their  contraction 
and  diftenfion,  give  rife  to  all  the  movements  of  the  body. 
The  mufcles,  therefore,  may  be  confidered  as  fo  many 
cords  attached  to  the  bones ;  and  Nature  has  fixed  them 
according  to  the  moil  perfect  principles  of  mechanifm,  fo 
as  to  produce  the  fitted  motions  in  the  bones  or  parts  for 
the  movement  of  which  they  are  intended. 

The  heart  is  a  hollow  mufcular  organ,  of  a  conical  ihape, 
and  confifts  of  four  diflincl  cavities.  The  two  largeft  are 
called  ventricles,  and  the  two  fmalleft  auricles.  The  heart 
is  inclofed  in  the  pericardium^  a  membranous  bag,  which 
Hkewife  contains  a  quantity  of  water,  or  lymph.  This 
water  lubricates  the  heart,  and  facilitates  all  its  motions. 
The  heart  is  the  general  refervoir  of  the  blood.  By  the 
contractions  and  dilatations  of  this  mufcle,  the  blood  is 
alternately  thrown  out  of,  and  received  into,  its  feveral 
cavities.  When  the  heart  contracts,  the  blood  is  propelled 
from  the  right  ventricle  into  the  lungs  through  the  pul- 
monary arteries,  which,  like  all  the  other  arteries,  are 
furaimed  with  valves  that  play  eafily  forward,  but  admit 
not  the  blood  to  regurgitate  toward  the  heart.  The  blood, 
after  circulating  through  the  lungs,  returns  into  the  left 
ventricle  of  the  heart  by  the  pulmonary  vein.  At  the 
fame  inftant,  the  left  ventricle  drives  the  blood  into  the 
aorta,  a  large  artery  which  fends  off  branches  to  fupply 
the  head  and  arms.  Another  large  branch  of  the  aorta 
defcends  along  the  infide  of  the  back-bone,  and  detaches 
numerous  ramifications  to  nourifh  the  vifcera  and  inferior 

G  extre- 


50  T  HE     P  II I  L  O  S  O  P  II  Y 

extremities.  After  ferving  the  mod  remote  extremities  of 
the  body,  the  arteries  are  converted  into  veins,  which,  in 
their  return  toward  the  heart,  gradually  unite  into  larger 
branches,  till  the  whole  terminate  in  one  great  trunk 
called  the  vena  cava,  which  difcharges  itfelf  into  the  right 
ventricle  of  the  heart,  and  completes  the  circulation. 

Befide  the  heart,  the  thorax,  or  cheft,  contains  the 
lungs,  or  organs  of  refpiration.  They  are  divided  into 
five  lobes,  three  of  which  lie  on  the  right,  and  two  on 
the  left  fide  of  the  thorax.  The  fubftance'of  the  lungs 
is  chiefly  compofed  of  infinite  ramifications  of  the  trachea 
or  windpipe,  which,  after  gradually  becoming  more  and 
more  minute,  terminate  in  little  cells,  or  veficles,  which 
have  a  free  communication  with  one  another.  At  each 
infpiration,  thefe  pipes  and  cells  are  filled  with  air,  which 
is  again  difcharged  by  refpiration.  In  this  manner,  a  cir- 
culation of  air,  which  is  neceiTary  to  the  exiftence  of  men 
and  other  animals,  is  conftantly  kept  up  as  long  as  life 
remains. 

The  inftru  merits  and  procefs  of  digeftion  fall  next  to 
be  confidcred.  The  ftomach  is  a  membranous  and  muf- 
cular  bag,  furnifhed  with  two  orifices  :  By  the  one  it  has 
a  communication  with  the  afophagus^  or  gullet,  and  by  the 
other  with  the  bowels,  which  begin  at  the  ftomach  and 
terminate  at  the  anus.  In  the  ftomach  and  inteftines  there 
are  immenfe  numbers  of  minute  veflels  called  lafteak^ 
the  mouths  of  which  are  conftantly  open  for  the  reception 
of  the  nutritious  particles.  After  being  moiftened  and 
lubricated  by  the  laliva,  the  food  is  received  into  the  fto- 
mach, where  it  is  ftill  farther  diluted  by  the  gaftric  juice, 
which  has  the  power  of  diflolving  every  kind  of  animal 
and  vegetable  fubftance.  When  the  food  has  remained 
fome  time  in  the  ftomach,  it  is  reduced  to  a  grey  if  h  pulp, 
mixed  with  fome  chylous  or  milky  particles.  The  thinner 
and  more  perfectly  digefted  parts  of  the  food  gradually 
pafs  through  the  pylorus^  or  lower  aperture  of  the  ftomach, 
into  the  inteftines,  where  they  are  ftill  farther  attenuated 
and  digefted  by  the  bile  and  pancreatic  juices.  While 
the  food  is  in  this  fluid  ftate,  it  receives  the  denomina- 
tion of  chyle,  and  is  continually  abforbed  by  the  mouths 

of 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          51 

of  the  lafteal  veins.  Thefe  veiTcls  arifs,  like  net-work, 
from  the  inner  furface  of  the  interlines,  pafs  obliquely 
through  their  coats,  and,  running  along  the  mefente.ry, 
unite,  as  they  advance,  into  larger  branches,  and  at  laft 
terminate  in  the  thoracic  duel,  or  general  receptacle  of 
the  chyle.  Befide  the  ladeals,  there  is  another  fyftem  of 
veflels'  called  lymphatic,  or  abforbent  veins*  :  They  are 
minute  pellucid  tubes,  and  generally  lie  clofe  to  the 
large  blood-vefiels.  The  lymphatics  from  all  the  lower 
parts  of  the  body  gradually  unite  as  they  approach 
the  thoracic  duel,  into  which  they  pour  a  colourlefs  fluid 
by  three  or  four  large  trunks ;  and  the  lymphatics  from 
all  the  fuperior  parts  of  the  body,  likewife  difcharge  their 
lymph  into  the  fame  duct,  as  it  runs  upward  to  terminate 
'in  the  left  fubclavian  vein.  By  this  curious  and  beautiful 
machinery,  the  chyle  and  lymph,  which  confift  of  the 
nutritious  matters  extracted  from  the  food,  enter  the  cir- 
culating fyftem,  are  converted  into  blood,  and  afford  that 
conflant  fupply  of  nourifhment  which  the  perpetual  wafte 
of  our  bodies  demands. 

We  (hall  next  give  a  fketch  of  thofe  important  organs 
by  which  we  are  enabled  to  multiply  and  continue  the  fpe- 
cies.  The  circulation  of  the  blood,  and  the  mode  by 
which  the  quantity  of  it  is  continually  kept  up  by  frefli 
fupplies  of  chyle,  are  effeds  which,  in  ibme  meafure,  cor- 
refpond  with  our  ideas  of  the  machinery  employed.  The 
organs  of  generation  exhibit  a  ftill  more  complex  fpecimen 
of  exquifite  mechanifm.  But,  the  machinery  employed, 
without  the  aid  of  experience,  could  never  fuggeft  the. 
mo  ft  diilant  idea  of  the  effect  to  be  produced. 

In  the  male,  the  organs  of  generation  confift  of  the 
teftes,  the  feminal  veffels,  and  the  penis.  The  teftes  are 
two  glandular  bodies  which  poflefs  the  power  of  convert- 
ing the  blood  into  femen.  They  are  originally  formed 
and  lodged  in  the  abdomen  ;  and  it  is  not  till  after  birth,, 
that  they  commonly  pafs  into  the  groin,  and  from  thence 
fall  into  the  fcrotum,  which  is  a  mufcular  bag  prepared 
for  their  reception  and  defence.  The  teftes  of  the  hedge- 
hog, 

*  The  lafleals  and  lymphatics,  properly  fpeaktng,  conftitute.  the  fame  great 
fvftem  of  vcflels. 


52  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

hog,  and  of  fome  other  quadrupeds,  remain  in  the  abdo- 
men during  life.  In  fiances  of  the  fame  kind  fometimes 
happen  in  the;  human  fpecies.  Each  tefticle  is  compofed 
of  the  fpermatic  artery  and  vein.  The  blood  pafTes  very 
fiowly  through  the  fpermatic  artery,  and  produces  an  in- 
finite number  of  convolutions  in  the  fubftance  of  the  tef- 
tic'e,  where  it  depofits  the  femen,  which  is  taken  up  by 
the  lei ...cniferous  tubes.  Thefe  tubes  at  length  unite,  and, 
1:\  an  immenfe  number  of  circumvolutions,  form  a  kind 
of  appendix  to  the  tefticle,  commonly  known  by  the  term 
epidydymis.  The  tubes  of  the  epidydymis,  after  terminat- 
ing in  an  excretory  duel  called  vas  deferent,  afcend  toward 
the  abdominal  rings,  and  depofit  the  femen  in  the  femi- 
nal  veficles,  which  are  two  foft  convoluted  bodies  fituated 
between  the  rectum  and  bladder,  and  unite  at  their  lower 
extremity  :  From  thefe  refervoirs  the  femen  is  occafion- 
ally  difcharged  through  the  fhort  canals  which  open  into 
the  urethra.  The  penis  is  a  cavernous  and  fpungy  fub- 
ftamce,  perforated  longitudinally  by  a  canal  called  the 
urethra,  which,  by  communicating  with  the,  bladder  and 
feminal  veffels,  anfwers  the  double  purpofe  of  difcharging 
both  the  urine  and  femen. 

With  regard  to  the  female  organs,  the  uterus  and  its 
appendages  merit  a  principal  attention.  The  uterus  is  a 
hollow  mufcular  body,  fituated  between  the  rectum  and 
bladder,  and,  when  not  in  an  impregnated  ftate,  refem- 
bles  a  pear,  with  the  thickeft  end  turned  toward  the 
abdomen.  The  entrance  into  the  cavity  of  the  uterus 
forms  a  fmall  protuberance,  which  has  been  compared  to 
the  mouth  of  a  tench,  and  from  this  circumftance  it  has 
received  the  name  of  os  tinea.  The  uterus  is  connected  to 
the  fides  of  the  pelvis  by  two  broad  ligaments,  which  fup- 
port  it  in  the  vagina  in  a  pendulous  fituation.  From  each 
fide  of  the  bottom  of  the  uturus  the  two  Fallopian  tubes 
arife,  pafs  through  the  fubftance  of  the  uterus,  and  ex- 
tend along  the  broad  ligaments  till  they  reach  the  edge  of 
the  pelvis  ;  from  whence  they  are  reflected  backward,  and 
turning  over  behind  the  ligaments,  their  extremities  hang 
loofe  in  the  pelvis.  Thefe  extremities,  becaufe  they  have 

a  ragged 


OF    NATURAL  'HISTORY.  53 

a  ra^ed  appearance,  are  calied  fimMrt,  or  inorfus  'diaboli : 
Each  Fallopian  tube  is  about  three  inches  lon^.  Their 
cavities  are  at  firfl  very  fmall,  but  become  gradually  lar- 
ger, like  a  trumpet,  as  they  approach  the  fimhrise.  Near 
the  fimbrise  of  each  tube,  about  an  inch  from  the  uterus, 
are  fituated  the  ovaria,  or  two  oval  bodies,  about  half  the 
fize  of  the  male  teiticle.  They  are  covered  with  a  pro- 
duction of  the  peritoneum,  and  hang  ioofe  in  the  pelvis. 
In  their  fubftance  there  are  feveral  minute  veficles  filled 
with  lymph.  The  number  of  thefe  veficles  feldom  ex- 
ceeds twelve  in  each  ovarium.  In  mature  females,  thcfe 
veficles  become  exceedingly  turgid  ;  and  a  yellow  coagu- 
lum  gradually  forms  in  one  of  them,  which  increafes  till 
its  coat  difappears.  It  then  changes  into  a  hemifpherical 
body  called  corpus  luteum,  which  is  defcribed  as  being  hol- 
low and  containing  within  its  cavity  very  minute  e; 
each  of  which,  it  is  fuppofed,  may  be  impregnated, 
produce  a  foetus.  After  impregnation,  one  of  thefe  eggs, 
as  we  are  informed  by  anatomifts,  is  abforbed  by  and 
pailes  through  the  Fallopian  tube  into  the  uterus,  where 
it  is  nourifhed  till  mature  for  birth. 

We  mall  conclude  this  fubjecl  with  a  concife  account  of 
the  instruments  of  fenfation.  The  organs  hitherto  de- 
fcribed convey  nothing  more  than  the  idea  of  an  auto- 
maton, or  felf-moving  machine.  But  fenfation,  or  the 
perception  of  pleafure  and  pain,  is  effected  by  organs  of 
a  peculiar  kind.  Thefe  organs  are  all  comprehended  un- 
der the  general  appellations  of  the  brain  and  nerves. 

Befide  the  bones  of  the  cranium,  the  brain  is  inverted 
with  two  membranes,  called  dura  and  pia  mater*  becaufe 
they  were  fuppofed  by  the  Arabians  to  be  the  Fource  of 
all  the  other  membranes  of  the  body.  Under  the  deno- 
mination of  brain  are  comprehended  three  diftinct  parts, 
the  cerebrum,  the  cerebellum,  and  medulla  oblongata.  The 
cerebrum  is  a  foft  medullary  mafs,  fituated  in  the  anterior 
part  of  the  fkull,  and  divided,  by  a  portion  of  the  dura 
mater,  into  two  hemifpheres.  It  confiits  of  two  fubftan- 
ces,  the  cortical,  which  is  greyim,  and  the  medullary, 
which  is  fofter,  and  of  a  very  white  colour.  The  cere- 
bellum is  divided  into  two  lobes,  and  its  fubftance  is  firmer 

and 


THE    PHILOSOPHY 

and  mere  compact  than  that  of  the  cerebrum.  It  is  like- 
wife  compofed  of  the  cortical  and  medullary  fubftances. 
The  reunion  of  the  medullary  fubftances  of  the  cerebrum 
and  cerebellum,  at  the  bails  of  the  fkull,  forms  the  me- 
dulla  obhngaia,  of  which  the.  fpinal  marrow  is  a  continu- 
ation. The  brain  of  the  human  fpecies  is  proportionally 
much  larger  than  that  of  quadrupeds. 

The  brain  and  fpinal  marrow  are  fuppofed  to  be  the 
origin  of  all  the  nerves  or  inflruments  of  fenfation.  The 
nerves  are,  in  general,  cineritious,  mining,  inelaftic  cords. 
But,  they  differ  from  each  other  in  fize,  colour,  and  con- 
fidence. From  numberlefs  experiments  and  observations, 
it  is  unqueftionable,  that  the  nerves  are  the  inflruments 
both  of  fenfation  and  of  animal  motion.  But,  how  thefe 
effects  are /produced  by  the  nervous  influence,  is  a  dif- 
covery  (till  to  be  made.  The  inquiry,  however,  has 
given  rife  to  feveral  ingenious  conjectures  and  hypothe- 
fes.  Some  phyfioiogifts  have  maintained,  that  the  nerves 
are  foiid  cords,  which  may  be  divided  into  an  infinite 
number  of  minute  filaments  ;  and  that,  by  the  vibrations 
of  thefe  cords,  the  various  impreflions  and  modifications 
of  feeling  are  conveyed  to  the  brain.  Others,  with  more 
plaufibility,  have  fuppofed  that  the  nerves  are  affemblages 
of  fmall  tubes  ;  that  a  fubtile  fluid,  fometimes  called  ani- 
malj "pints ',  is  fecreted  in  the  brain  and  fpinal  marrow  ; 
and  that  by  the  influence  or  motions  of  this  fluid  all  the 
fenfations  of  animals  are  tranfmitted  to  the  fenforium,  or 
general  repofitory  of  ideas.  But,  it  is  needlefs  to  dwell 
upon  a  fubjeci:  covered  with  darknefs,  and  which  all  the 
efforts  of  human  powers  will  probably  never  bring  to  light. 

Anatomifts  have  defcribed  forty  pair  of  nerves.  Ten 
of  them  proceed  from  the  medulla  oblongata  of  the  brain, 
and  thirty  from  the  fpinal  marrow.  Thefe  nerves,  by 
fending  off  innumerable  ramifications,  are  diftributed, 
like  a  net -work,  over  every  part  of  the  body,  till  they 
terminate,  in  the  form  of  minute  papillae,  upon  the  (kin. 
That  the  nerves  are  the  immediate  inftrunients  of  fen- 
fation, as  well  as  of  mufcular  motion,  has  been  proved 
by  a  thoufand  uncontrovertible  experiments.  When  the 
trunk  of  the  fciatic  nerve  is  cut,  the  thigh  and  leg  on 

that 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          55 

that  fide  inflantly  lofe  all  motion,  and  all  fenfe  of  pain, 
below  the  incifion,  and  neither  time  nor  art  can  ever  re- 
ftore  the  power  of  feeling  or  of  moving.  But  the  parts 
between  the  incifion  and  the  fpinal  marrow,  which  is  a 
continuaticn  of  the  brain,  retain  their  ufual  degrees  both 
of  motion  and  of  fenfation.  From  this  experiment,  it 
is  evident,  that  the  nerves  are  the  organs  by  which  fenfa- 
tion and  motion  are  effected,  and  that,  for  thcfe  import- 
ant purpofes,  an  uninterrupted  connection  between  any 
particular  nerve  and  the  brain,  or  fpinal  marrow,  is  in- 
difpenfible. 

This  (ketch  of  the  human  fabrick  requires  an  apology 
to  anatomical  readers,  who  mull  be  fenfible  of  its  many 
imperfections.  To  perfons  who  have  not  fludied  that 
curious  and  ufeful  fcience,  I  imagined  a  general  view  of 
the  ftructure  of  .man,  if  properly  compofed,  might  enable 
them  to  acquire  more  diilmct  ideas  of  the  many  feeming 
deviations  from  the  common  plan  obferved  by  Nature  in 
the  formation  of  the  inferior  and  more  imperfect  animals. 


OF  THE  STRUCTURE  OF  QUADRUPEDS. 

HAVING  delineated  the  flructure  and  organs  of  the 
human  fpecies,  it  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  the  intellect, 
or  fagacity,  of  inferior  animals  augments  or  diminimes  in 
proportion  as  the  formation  of  their  bodies  approaches  to, 
or  recedes  from,  that  of  man.  Quadrupeds,  accordingly, 
are  more  intelligent  than  birds  ;  the  fagacity  of  birds  ex- 
ceeds that  of  fifties  ;  and  the  dexterity  and  cunning  of 
fifties  are  fuperior  to  thofe  of  moil  of  the  infect  tribes. 
The  fame  gradation  of  mental  powers  is  exhibited  in  dif- 
ferent fpecies  of  the  fame  clafles  of  animals.  The  form 
of  the  orang  outang  makes  the  neareft  approach  to  the 
human  ;  and  the  arts  he  employs  for  his  defence,  the  ac- 
tions he  performs,  and  the  fagacity  he  difcovers,  are  fo 
aftoniftiing,  that  fome  philofophers  have  confidered  him 
as  a  real  human  being  in  the  mod  debafed  ftage  of  focie- 
ty.  Next  to  the  orang  outang,  the  organs  of  the  different 

fpocies 


56  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

fpecies  of  apes  and  monkeys  have  the  greateft  refem- 
blance  to  thofe  of  man  ;  and  their  powers  of  imitation, 
their  addrefs  in  procuring  their  food,  and  in  managing 
their  young,  their  ingenuity,  and  their  fagacious  man- 
ners, have  contributed  to  the  amufement,  and  excited 
the  admiration,  of  mankind  in  all  ages  and  nations.  The 
fame  relation  between  form  and  intellect  may  be  traced 
in  the  dog,  the  cat,  the  fow,  the  horfe,  the  fheep,  and  the 
other  fpecies  of  quadrupeds. 

\-  vird  to  the  general  ftructure  and  figure  of  qua- 

driipeds,  a  great  variety  is  exhibited  in  the  different  kinds. 
•Biii?  \v.aen  examined  in  detail,  it  is  apparent  that  they, 
as  vv^i-  as  man,  are  all  formed  upon  one  primitive  and 
general  defign.  Befide  the  organs  of  fenfation,  of  circu- 
iailon,  of  digeftion,  and  of  generation,  without  which 
moit  animals  could  neither  Jubfift  nor  multiply,  there  is, 
even  among  thofe  parts  that  chiefly  contribute  to  variety 
in  external  form,  fuch  a  wonderful  refemblance  as  necef- 
farily  conveys  the  idea  of  an  original  plan  upon  which 
the  whole  has  been  executed.  For  example,  when  the 
parts  conflituting  a  horfe  are  compared  with  the  human 
frame,  inftead  of  being  (truck  with  their  difference,  we 
are  aflonimed  at  their  fmgular  and  almolt  perfect  refem- 
blance. Take  the  fkeleton  of  a  man,  fays  Buffon,  incline 
the  bones  of  the  pelvis ;  fhorten  thofe  of  the  thighs,  legs, 
and  arms  ;  join  the  phalanges  of  the  fingers  and  toes  ; 
lengthen  the  jaws  by  fhortening  the  frontal  bones  ;  and, 
laflly,  extend  the  fpine  of  the  back.  This  fkeleton  would 
no  longer  reprefent  that  of  a  man  :  It  would  be  the  fkele- 
ton of  a  horfe.  For,  by  lengthening  the  back-bone  and 
the  jaws,  the  number  of  the  vertebrae,  ribs,  and  teeth, 
would  be  increafed  ;  and  it  is  only  by  the  number  of 
thefe  bones,  and  by  the  prolongation,  contraction,  and 
junction  of  othcfrs,  that  the  ikeleton  of  a  horfe  differs  from 
that  of  a  man.  The  ribs,  which  are  eiTential  to  the  figure 
of  animals,  are  found  equally  in  man,  hi  quadrupeds,  in 
birds,  in  Mies,  and  even  in  the  turtle.  The  foot  of  the 
horfe,  fo  apparently  different  from  the  hand  of  a  man,  is 
compofed  of  fimilar  bones ;  and,  at  the  extremity  of  each 
finger,  we  have  the  fame  fmall  bone,  refembling  the  fhoe 

of 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  57 

of  a  horfe,  which  bounds  the  foot  of  that  animal.  Raife 
the  fkeletons  of  quadrupeds,  from  the  ape-kind  to  the 
moufe,  upon  their  hind-legs,  and  compare  them  with  the 
Skeleton  of  a  man,  the  mind  will  be  inftantly  (truck  with 
the  uniformity  of  (truclure  and  defign  obferved  in  the 
formation  of  the  whole  group.  This  uniformity  is  ib 
conftant,  and  the  gradations  from  one  fpecies  to  another 
are  fo  imperceptible,  that  to  difcover  the  marks  of  their 
difcrimination  requires  the  moft  minute  attention.  Even 
the  bones  of  the  tail  will  make  but  a  flight  imprefTion  on 
the  obferver.  The  tail  is  only  a  prolongation  of  the  os  coccy- 
gis,or  rump-bone, which  is  fhort  in  man.  The  oiang-outang, 
and  true  apes  *,  have  no  tail;  and,  in  the  baboons,  and  feve- 
ral  other  quadrupeds,  the  tail  is  exceedingly  fhort.  Thus, 
in  the  creation  of  animals,  the  Supreme  Being  feems  to 
have  employed  only  one  great  idea,  and,  at  the  fame 
time,  to  have  diversified  it  in  every  poffible  manner,  that 
men  might  have  an  opportunity  of  admiring  equally  the 
magnificence  of  the  execution  and  the  fimplicity  of  the 
defign. 

In  quadrupeds,  as  well  as  in  man,  the  bones  are  con- 
nected by  articulations  and  membranes  ;  and  the  different 
movements  of  thefe  bones  are  performed  by  the  operation 
of  mufcles.  The  number,  difpofition,  and  form  of  the 
mufcles,  with  a  few  exceptions  arifing  from  the  figure  and 
deftination  of  parts  peculiar  to  particular  animals,  are 
nearly  the  fame  in  men  and  in  quadrupeds.  The  circu- 
lation of  their  blood,  the  fecretion  of  their  fluids,  and 
the  procefs  of  digeflion,  are  carried  on  by  organs  per- 
fectly fimilar  to  thofe  of  the  human  body.  In  the  exter- 
nal covering,  a  fmall  difference  takes  place.  Quadrupeds 
are  furnifhed  with  a  thick  covering  of  hair,  or  wool,  to 
defend  them  from  the  injuries  of  the  weather.  Being 
deflitute  of  art  fufficient  to  make  garments,  Nature  has 
fupplied  that  defect,  by  giving  them  a  coat  of  hair,  which 
varies  in  thicknefs  according  to  the  feafon  of  the  year,  and 
the  difference  of  climate.  In  Ruffia,  Lapland,  Kamtf- 
chatka,  and  all  the  northern  regions,  the  furs  of  animals 
are  very  thick  and  warm.  But,  in  Turkey,  Africa,  and 

H  the 

*"  The  Simicf.  of  the  ancient  naturalifts. 


58  T  H  E    P  H  I  L  O  S  O  P  H  Y 

the  fouthern  parts  of  Afia  and  America,  moll  quadrupeds 
are  thinly  clad,  and  ibme  of  them,  as  the  Turkifh  dog, 
are  totally  deftitute  of  hair. 

The  fcin  of  quadrupeds  is  difpofed  nearly  in  the  fame 
manner  as  the  human,  only  it  is  more  elaftic.  Immedi- 
ately under  the  (kin,  there  is  a  thin  mufcular  fubftance, 
called  pannlculus  carnofus^  which  is  common  to  all  qua- 
drupeds, except  the  hog  and  armadillo*  kinds.  This 
fubftance,  which  is  peculiar  to  quadrupeds,  chiefly  covers 
the  trunk,  and,  by  fuddenly  making  and  fhrivelling  the 
fldn,  enables  thefe  animals  to  drive  off  infects,  or  other 
offenfive  bodies. 

The  fubftance  of  the  nerves,  or  organs  of  fenfation,  is 
the  fame  in  the  quadruped  and  in  man.  They  originate 
from  the  brain  and  fpinal  marrow,  and  are  diftributed 
over  all  the  internal  and  external  parts  of  the  body,  in  the 
fame  manner  as  in  the  human  frame. 

Thus,  it  appears,  that,  in  general  ftructure  and  organi- 
zation, the  brute  creation  is  nearly  allied  to  the  human 
fpecies.  Some  differences,  however,  merit  attention  ; 
becaufe  a  flight  variation  in  ftrudhire,  efpecially  of  the 
internal  organs,  is  often  accompanied  with  great  diver- 
lities  in  difpofitions,  food,  and  manners. 

Some  animals  feed  upon  flefh,  others  upon  vegetables, 
and  others  upon  a  mixture  of  both.  The  difpofitions  of 
ibme  fpecies  are  fierce  ;  and  their  manners  convey  to  us 
the  ideas  of  cruelty  and  of  barbarifm :  The  difpofitions 
and  manners  of  other  fpecies  are  foft  and  placid,  and  ex- 
cite in  us  ideas  of  mildnefs,  complacency,  and  innocence. 
The  ferocity  of  the  tyger  and  hyasna  forms  a  perfect  con* 
iraft  to  the  gentlenefs  and  inoffenfive  behaviour  of  the 
fheep  and  the  ox.  This  oppontion  of  manners  has  given 
rife  to  the  diilindion  of  animals  into  rapacious  and  mild, 
carnivorous  and  herbivorous.  In  the  ftruchire  of  thefe 
animals,  whofe  characters  are  fo  oppofite,  fome  differen- 
ces hafve  been  difcovered,  which  indicate  the  intentions 
of  Nature*  in  forming  them,  and  fully  juftify  the  feeming 
cruelty  of  their  conduct. 

In  all  the  carnivorous  tribes,  the  ftomach  is  proportion- 
ally 

*  The  genus  Dafypus,  of  which  there  arc  foveral  fpecies. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  59 

ally  fmaller,  and  the  inteftines  fhorter,  than  in  thofe  ani- 
mals which  feed  upon  vegetables.  As  animals  of  the 
former  kind  live  folely  on  flefh,  the  fhortnefs  and  narrow- 
nefs  of  their  inteftines  are  accommodated  to  the  nature 
of  their  food.  Animal  food  is  more  eafily  reduced  to 
chyle,  and  becomes  fooner  putrid,  than  vegetable.  Of 
courfe,  if  its  juices  were  allowed  to  remain  long  in  the 
inteftines,  inftead  of  nourilhing  the  body,  they  would 
produce  the  moft  fatal  diftempers.  Befide  this  accom- 
modation of  the  inteftines  to  the  nature  of  their  food, 
carnivorous  animals  are  furnifhed  with  the  neceifary  in- 
firuinents  for  feizing  and  devouring  their  prey.  Their 
heads  are  roundifh,  their  jaws  ftrong,  and  their  tufks  very 
long,  and  iharp.  Some  of  them,  as  the  lion,  the  tyger, 
and  the  whole  cat-kind,  are  provided  with  long  retractile 
claws.  Thus,  both  the  internal  and  external  ftru&ure  of 
this  clafs  of  animals  indicate  their  deftination  and  man- 
ners. The  rapid  digeftion  of  their  food  is  a  confequence 
of  the  ftrength  and  fhortnefs  of  their  inteftines ;  and  the 
intolerable  cravings  of  their  appetite  neceffarily  create  a 
fiercenefs  and  rapacity  of  difpofition.  Nothing  lefs  than 
blood  can  fatiate  them.  Their  cruelty,  and  the  devafta- 
tion  they  make  among  the  weaker  and  more  timid  tribes, 
are  effects  refulting  folely  from  the  ftrudure  and  organs 
with  which  Nature  has  thought  proper  to  endow  them. 
Hence,  if  there  be  any  thing  reprehenfible  in  the  man- 
ners and  difpofitioris  of  the  carnivorous  animals.  Nature 
alone  is  to  blame  ;  for  all  their  actions  are  determined  by 
the  irrefiftible  impulfes  of  their  organization.  But,  even 
in  this  feerningly-cruel  arrangement,  Nature  muft  not  be 
rafhly  accufed.  When  we  come  to  treat  of  the  hoftilities 
of  animals,  I  hope  to  be  able  to  fhow,  that  Nature,  in 
the  formation  of  rapacious  creatures,  has  acted  with  her 
ufual  wifdom,  and  that  beings  of  this  kind  have  their  ufes 
in  the  general  fyftem  and  ceconomy  of  the  univerfe. 

As  to  the  herbivorous  tribes,  or  thofe  animals  which 
feed  upon  grain  and  herbage,  a  flight  variation  t>f  organs 
produces  the  greater!  effects  upon  their  diipofition  and 
manners.  The  inteftines  of  this  tribe  are  very  long,  capa- 
cious, and  convoluted.  Vegetable  food,  efpecially  herbage, 

contains 


6o  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

contains  a  fmaller  quantity  of  nutritive  matter  than  the 
flefh  of  animals  ;  neither  is  it  fo  earily  reduced  to  chyle. 
A  larger  quantity,  therefore,  as  well  as  a  longer  detention 
in  th»j  ftomach  and  inteftines,  is  neceffary  for  the  nourifh- 
ment  of  thefe  creatures.  Several  quadrupeds  comprehend- 
e...  under  this  order  ruminate,  or  chew  the  cud.  Thefe 
are  furnimed  with  no  lefs  than  four  ftomachs.  The  food, 
after  maflication,  is  thrown  into  the  firft  ftomach,  where 
it  remains  fome  time  ;  after  which,  the  animal  forces  it 
up  again  into  the  mouth,  sand  gives  it  a  fecond  chewing. 
It  is  then  fent  directly  into  the  fecond  ftomach,  and  gra- 
dually palfes  into  the  third  and  fourth ;  and,  laftly,  it  is 
tranimitted  through  the  convolutions  of  the  inteftines, 
and  the  dregs,  or  faeces,  are  thrown  out  of  the  body.  By 
this  machinery,  herbivorous  animals  are  enabled  to  de- 
vour large  quantities  of  vegetable  aliment,  to  retain  it 
Ion?;  in  their  Dowels,  and  confequently  to  extract  from  it 
nutritive  matter  fuificient  for  their  growth,  fupport,  and 
multiplication.  Here  the  quantity  compenfates  the  qua- 
lity of  the  nutriment. 

It  is  true,  that  the  horfe,  the  afs,  the  hare,  and  fome 
other  animals  which  live  upon  herbage  and  grain,  have 
only  one  ftomach.  But,  though  the  horfe  and  afs  have 
one  ftomach  only,  their  inteftines  are  furnifhed  with  facs 
or  pouches  fo  large,  that  they  may  be  compared  to  tne 
paunch  of  ruminating  animals  ;  and  hares,  rabbits,  the 
Guiney-pig,  &c.  have  blind  guts  fo  long  and  capacious, 
that  they  are  equivalent  to  a  fecond  ftomach.  The  hedge- 
hog, the  wild  boar,  the  fquirrel,  &c.  whofe  ftomach  and 
inteftines  are  of  a  mean  capacity,  eat  little  herbage,  but 
live  chiefly  upon  feeds,  fruits,  and  roots,  which  contain, 
in  fmall  bounds,  a  greater  quantity  of  nutritive  matter 
than  the  leaves  or  ftems  of  plants. 

The  external  form  of  herbivorous  animals,  like  that  of 
the  rapacious,  is  accommodated  to  their  difpofitiens  and 
the  ceconomy  they  are  obliged  to  obferve.  That  they 
might  be  enabled  to  reach  the  furface  of  the  earth  with 
eafe,  the  legs  of  the  larger  kinds  are  proportionally  fhort ; 
their  head  and  neck  long  ;  and  the  mufcles  and  tendons 
of  the  neck  are  endowed  with  prodigious  ftrength.  With- 
out 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  61 

©ut  thefe  peculiarities  of  flru&ure,  they  could  not  fupport 
the  prone  poflure  of  the  head  in  the  tedious  operation  of 
browfmg  large  quantities  of  herbage.  The  arrangement 
and  form  of  their  teeth  likewife  indicate  the  deftination  of 
the  ruminating  tribes.  They  have  no  cutting  teeth  in  the 
upper  jaw  ;  and  they  are  totally  deprived  of  tufks,  or  ca- 
nine teeth.  This  lad  circumftance,  joined  to  their  want 
of  claws,  (hews  that  they  are  not  intended  to  prey  upon 
other  animals.  Horns  are  the  only  weapons  of  defence 
with  which  they  are  provided.  From  the  nature  of  their 
food,  therefore,  and  the  internal  and  external  configura- 
tion of  their  bodies,  it  is  evident,  that  animals  of  this 
defcription  mud  be  humble  in  their  deportment,  and  mild 
in  their  difpofition.  This  order  of  animals,  accordingly, 
have  uniformly  been  celebrated  for  gentlenefs  of  manners, 
fubmiflion,  and  timidity.  Man  has  availed  himfelf  of 
thofe  difpofitions,  by  reducing  almoft  the  whole  of  this 
tribe  to  a  domeftic  ftate.  But,  in  all  this  gracioufnefs  of 
afped  and  traclability  of  temper,  the  animals  themfelves 
have  no  merit.  Their  motions  and  actions  are  neceffary 
refults  of  the  organs  which  Nature  has  beftowed  on  them. 
It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  the  diverfity  of  tafles  and 
difpofitions  exhibited  by  different  animals,  arifes  not  folely 
from  any  fuperior  agreeablenefs  of  particular  kinds  of 
food  to  their  palates,  or  to  a  particular  bias  of  their  minds 
to  benevolence  and  peace,  but  from  a  phyfical  caufe  de- 
pending on  the  ftructure  of  their  bodies. 

From  what  has  been  advanced,  it  follows,  that  man, 
whofe  flomach  and  iiiteftines  are  proportionally  of  no 
great  capacity,  could  not  live  upon  herbage  alone.  It  is 
an  inconteftible  fact,  however,  that  he  can  live  tolerably 
well  upon  bread,  herbs,  and  the  fruits,  roots,  and  feeds  of 
plants  ;  for  we  know  whole  nations,  as  well  as  particular 
orders  of  men,  who  are  prohibited  by  their  religion  from 
eating  any  animal  fubftance.  But,  thefe  examples  are  not 
fufficient  to  convince  us,  that  the  health,  vigour,  and 
multiplication  of  mankind  would  be  improved  by  feeding 
folely  upon  pot-herbs  and  bread.  Befides,  his  flomach 
arid  inteftines  are  of  a  mean  capacity  between  thofe  of 
the  carnivorous  and  herbivorous  animals.  From  this 
/  circum- 


6;  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

circumftance  alone  we  are  warranted  to  conclude,  that 
Nature  intended  him  to  feed  partly  on  animal  and  partly 
on  vegetable,  fubftances  :  And  daily  experience  teaches  us, 
that  men  fed  in  this  manner  are  larger,  ftronger,  and  more 
prolific,  than  thofe  who  are  confined  to  a  vegetable  diet, 
If  man  had  no  other  fources  of  fuperiority  over  the  other 
animals  than  thofe  which  originate  from  the  ftru&ure  of 
his  body,  his  difpofitions  ought  to  be  a  medium  between 
thofe  of  the  carnivorous  and  herbivorous  tribes.  When 
confidered  merely  as  an  animal,  this  appears  to  be  really 
the  cafe.  Vulgar  and  uninformed  men,  when  pampered 
with  a  variety  of  animal  food,  are  much  more  choleric, 
fierce  and  cruel  in  their  tempers  than  thofe  who  live  chiefly 
on  vegetables.  Animal  food  heats  the  blood,  and  makes 
it  circulate  with  rapidity.  In  this  fituation,  every  object 
capable  of  exciting  appetite  or  paffion  operates  with  re- 
doubled force.  The  weak  mind  yields  to  the  impulfe, 
and  gives  vent  to  every  fpecies  of  outrage  which  can  de- 
bafe  human  nature. 

In  the  formation  of  his  body,  man  has  fome  advant- 
ages over  particular  animals.  But,  thefe  advantages  are 
inconfiderable,  and  none  of  them,  perhaps,  are  peculiar 
to  the  fpecies.  The  ftructure  of  all  animals  is  nicely  ad- 
jufled  to  their  deftination,  and  the  ilation  they  occupy  in 
the  general  fcale  of  being.  The  body  of  man  is  erect, 
and  his  attitude  is  faid  to  be  that  of  command.  His  ma- 
jeilic  deportment,  and  the  firmnefs  of  his  movements,  an- 
nounce the  fuperiority  of  his  rank.  His  arms  are  not 
mere  pillars  for  the  fupport  of  his  body.  His  hands  tread 
not  the  earth  ;  neither  do  they  lofe,  by  friction  and  pref- 
fure,  that  exquifite  delicacy  of  feeling  for  which  Nature 
had  originally  intended  them.  His  arms  and  hands,  on 
the  contrary,  are  formed  for  purpofes  of  a  more  noble 
kind.  They  are  deftined  for  executing  the  commands  of 
his  will,  for  laying  hold  of  bodies,  for  removing  obfla- 
cles,  for  defending  him  from  injuries,  and  for  feizing  and 
retaining  objects  of  pleafure.  The  features  of  this  picture 
are  exact  delineations  ;  but  they  are  not  the  exclufive  pri- 
vilege of  man.  The  orang-outang  walks  erect,  and  he 
derives  equal  advantages  from  his  hands  and  arms  as  the 

human 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          63 

human  fpecies.  Some  apes  have  likewife  the  power  of 
walking  erect,  with  the  additional  faculty  of  employing 
their  hands  and  arms  as  legs.  They  can  walk,  run,  or 
leap,  by  the  inftrumentality  either  of  two  or  of  four  ex- 
tremities, as  their  fituation  or  neceffities  may  require.  It 
is  not,  therefore,  the  fabrick  of  man's  body  that  entitles 
him  to  claim  a  fuperiority  over  the  other  animals.  The 
formation  of  their  bodies  is  adjufted  with  equal  fymmetry 
and  perfection  to  the  rank  they  hold  in  the  general  fyftern 
of  animation.  Many  of  tliem  excel  us  in  magnitude, 
ftrength,  fwiftnefs,  and  dexterity  in  particular  movements. 
Their  fenfes  are  often  more  acute  ;  they  feize  their  prey, 
or  procure  herbage,  fruits,  and  feeds  of  trees,  with  more 
facility  than  man,  when  limited  to  the  powers  of  his  ani- 
mal nature.  Hence  the  great  fourceof  man's  fuperiority 
over  the  brute  creation  muft  be  derived  from  his  mental 
faculties  alone.  Brutes  enjoy  the  fame  inftincts,  the  fame 
appetites,  and  the  fame  propenfities,  as  appear  in  the  con- 
ftitution  of  the  human  mind.  But,  the  inftincts  of  brutes, 
though  they  are  exerted  with  great  certainty  and  precifion, 
are  much  circumfcribed  with  regard  to  extenfion  and  im- 
provement. Like  man,  they  derive  advantages  from  ex- 
perience. But,  the  conclufions  they  draw  from  this  fource 
are  always  feeble,  and  extremely  limited.  Neither  do  they 
poflefs  the  ineftimable  faculty  of  tranfmitting  the  know- 
ledge acquired  by  individuals  from  generation  to  genera- 
tion. By  means  of  their  fenfes,  they  learn  to  diftinguilh 
their  enemies,  or  hurtful  objects,  at  a  diftance  ;  and  they 
know  how  to  avoid  them.  Experience  teaches  them  to 
difcriminate  objects  of  pleafure  from  thofe  of  pain  ;  and 
they  act  according  to  the  feelings  excited  by  thefe  objects. 
Some  animals  can  even  accommodate  their  inflincts  to 
particular  circumftances  and  fituations.  The  feelings  of 
brutes  are  often  more  exquifite  than  ours.  They  have 
fenfations  \  but  their  faculty  of  comparing  them,  or  of 
forming 'ideas,  is  much  circumfcribed.  A  dog  or  a  mon- 
key can  imitate  fome  human  actions,  and  are  capable  of 
receiving  a  certain  degree  of  inftruction.  But,  their  pro- 
grefs  foon  itops  :  Nature  has  fixed  the  boundaries  of  men- 
tal, as  well  as  of  corporeal,  powers ;  and  thefe  boundaries 

are 


64  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

are  as  various  as  the  number  of  diflinft  fpecies.  Our 
wonder  is  equally  excited  by  the  fagac'ry  of  icme  ani- 
mals, and  by  the  ftupidity  of  others.  This  gradation  of 
mental  faculties  originates  from  the  number  or  paucity  of 
inftinds  beftowed  on  particular  fpecies,  joined  to  the 
greater  or  fmaller  power  of  extending  or  modifying  thefe 
inftincls  by  experience  and  obfervation.  Man  is  endow- 
ed with  a  greater  number  of  inftinds  than  any  other  ani- 
mal. The  fuperiority  of  his  rank,  however,  does  not 
proceed  from  this  fource  alone.  Man  enjoys  beyond 
every  other  animal  the  faculty  of  extending,  improving, 
and  modifying  the  different  inftincls  he  has  received  from 
Nature.  It  is  this  faculty  which  enables  him  to  compare 
his  feelings,  to  form  ideas,  and  to  reafon  concerning 
both.  The  bee  makes  cells,  and  the  beaver  conftruds 
habitations  of  clay.  The  order  of  their  architecture, 
however,  is  invariably  the  fame.  Man  likewife  builds 
houfes  :  But,  he  is  not  forced,  by  an  irrefiflible  inftind, 
to  work  always  on  the  fame  plan.  His  habitations,  on 
the  contrary,  vary  with  the  fancy  of  the  individuals  who 
defign  and  conftrud  them. 

Upon  the  whole,  the  dignity  of  man's  rank  depends 
not  upon  the  ftrudure  of  his  organs.  It  is  from  the 
powers  of  his  intellect  alone  that  he  is  entitled  to  claim  a 
fuperiority  over  the  brute  creation.  Thefe  powers  enable 
him  to  form  ideas,  to  abftrad,  to  reafon,  to  invent,  and 
to  reach  all  the  heights  of  fcience  and  of  art. 

The  remarks  formerly  made  are  applicable  to  quadru- 
peds in  general.  But,  before  concluding  this  branch  of 
the  fubjed,  we  mall  point  out  a  few  peculiarities  in  the 
ftrudtfre  of  particular  fpecies. 

Befide  the  four  ftomaehs  common  to  ruminating  ani- 
mals, the  camel  and  dromedary  have  a  fifth  bag,  which 
ferves  them  as  a  refervoir  for  holding  water.  This  bag 
is  capable  of  containing  a  very  large  quantity  of  that  ne- 
ceiiary  element.  When  the  camel  is  thirfty,  and  has  oc- 
cafion  to  macerate  his  dry  food  in  the  operation  of  rumi- 
nating, by  a  fimple  contraction  of  certain  mufcles,  he 
makes  part  of  this  \vater  afcend  into  his  ftomach,  or  even 
as  high  as  the  gullet.  This  (ingular  conftrudion  enables 

him 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          65 

him  to  travel  fix,  eight,  or  even  twelve  days  in  the  fandy 
defarts,  without  drinking,  and  to  take  at  once  a  prodigi- 
ous quantity  of  water,  which  remains  in  the  refervoir 
pure  and  limpid  ;  becaufe  neither  the  humours  of  the 
body,  nor  the  juices  that  promote  digeftion,  can  haveac- 
cefs  to  it.  Befide  this  fmgularity  of  llructure,  the  camel 
has  two  large  flemy  bunches  on  his  back,  and  the  dro- 
medary, or  fwift  camel,  one  bunch  ;  and  the  feet  of  both 
are  covered  with  a  very  tough,  but  flexible,  fubftance. 
The  conformation  of  thefe  animals  enables  them  to  tra- 
vel with  heavy  loads  through  the  fandy  defarts  of  the 
Eaft,  where  the  horfe  or  the  afs  would  inevitably  perifh  5 
becaufe  Nature  has  not  provided  them  with  refervoirs  for 
holding  and  preferving  water,  which  are  indifpeniible 
in  countries  where  none  of  that  element  can  be  pro^ 
cured  but  in  particular  places,  that  are  often  diftant 
many  days  journey  from  each  other.  When  we  con- 
fider  the  ftruclure  of  the  camel  and  dromedary,  we 
cannot  be  deceived  with  regard  to  their  deftination. 
The  four  ftomachs  indicate  a  vegetable  diet,  and  the  fame 
docility  and  gentlenefs  of  manners  which  ch  ar  after  ife  the 
whole  ruminating  tribes.  From  the  addition  of  a  fifth 
bag,  or  refervoir  for  the  reception  and  prefervation  of 
water,  we  fhould  expecl  to  find  fome  peculiarity  of  dif- 
pofition.  In  this  conjecture  we  are  not  deceived.  Of 
all  animals  which  man  has  fubjugated,  the  camel  and 
dromedary  are  the  mod  abject  ilaves.  With  incredible 
patience  and  fubmiffion  they  traverfe  the  burning  fands 
of  Africa  and  Arabia,  carrying  burdens  of  amazing  weight. 
Inflead  of  difcovering  fymptoms  of  reluctance,  they  fpon-, 
taneoufly  lie  down  on  their  knees  till  their  mailer  binds 
the  unmerciful  load.  Arabia  and  fome  parts  of  Africa, 
are  the  dried  and  mod  barren  countries  in  the  world. 
Both  the  conftitution  and  ftrufture  of  camels  are  nicely 
adapted  to  the  foil  and  climate  in  which  they  are  produc- 
ed. The  Arabians  confider  the  camel  as  a  gift  fcnt  from 
heaven,  a  facred  animal,  without  whofe  aflifbnce  they 
could  neither  fubfift,  traffick,  nor  travel.  The  milk  of  the 
camel  is  their  common  food.  They  alfo  eat  its  flefh  ; 
and  of  its  hair  they  make  garments,  In  pofleffion 

I  of 


66  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

feilion  of  their  camels,  the  Arabs  want  nothing,  an  •  have 
nothing  to  fear.  In  one  day  they  can  perform  a  ey 

of  fifty  leagues  into  the  defart,  which  cuts  off  e\  >- 

proach  from  their  enemies.  All  the  armies  in  the  v  d 
would  perifh  in  purfuit  of  a  troop  of  Arabs.  An  Av  ), 
by  the  affiftance  of  his  camel,  furmounts  all  the  difficul- 
ties of  a  country  which  is  neither  covered  with  verdure, 
nor  fupplied  with  water.  Notwithftanding  the  vigilance 
of  his  neighbours,  and  the  fuperiority  of  their  ftrength, 
he  eludes  their  purfuit,  and  carries  off,  with  impunity, 
all  that  he  ravages  from  them.  When  about  to  under- 
take a  depredatory  expedition,  an  Arab  makes  his  camels 
carry  both  his  and  their  own  provifions.  When  he  reach- 
es the  confines  of  the  defart,  he  robs  the  firft  paffengers 
who  come  in  his  way,  pillages  the  folitary  houfes,  loads 
his  camels  with  the  booty,  and,  if  purfued,  he  accelerates 
his  retreat.  On  thefe  occafions  he  difplays  his  own  ta- 
lents, as  well  as  thofe  of  the  camels.  He  mounts  one  of 
the  fleeteft,  conducts  the  troop,  and  obliges  them  to  tra- 
vel day  and  night,  without  almoft  either  flopping,  eat- 
ing, or  drinking  ;  and,  in  this  manner,  he  often  per- 
forms a  journey  of  300  leagues  in  eight  days. 

Another  order  of  quadrupeds  deferves  our  notice.  Thofe 
\vhich  have  been  diftinguifhed  by  the  appellation  of  am- 
phibious, are  capable  of  remaining  a  long  time  under 
water.  They  live  chiefly  upon  fifties,  and,  without  this 
faculty  of  continuing  a  confiderable  time  under  water, 
they  would  be  unable  to  procure  their  food.  To  this  tribe 
belong  thefeal*,  the  walrusf,  the  manatit,  the  fea-lion|i, 
&c.  The  feal  and  walrus  are  more  nearly  allied  to  land- 
quadrupeds  than  to  the  cetaceous  animals ;  becaufe  they 
have  four  diftinct  legs,  though  nothing  but  the  feet  pro- 
ject beyond  the  (kin.  The  toes  of  the  feet  are  all  con- 
nected by  membranes,  which  enable  thefe  animals  to 
fwim  in  queft  of  their  prey.  They  differ  from  terreftrial 
quadrupeds  by  the  fingular  faculty  of  living  with  equal 
eafe  either  in  air  or  in  water.  This  peculiarity  of  ceco- 
nomy  and  manners  prefuppofes  the  necefiity  of  fome  de- 
viation 

*  The  genus  Pboca  of  Linnaeus,  f  Trichecus  Rofmarus. 

t  Tiichecus  Mavotns.  !i  Phoca  Lfonina. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  67 

viation  from  the  general  ftru&ure  of  quadrupeds;  and 
Nature  has  accomplished  this  purpofe  by  a  very  fimple 
artifice. 

In  man,  and  in  all  land -quadrupeds,  the  lungs  of  the 
foetus  have  no  motion,  and  receive  no  more  blood  than 
is  requifite  for  their  growth  and  nourimment.  But,  im- 
mediately after  birth,  the  young  animals  refpire,  and  the 
whole  mafs  of  blood  circulates  through  their  lungs.  To 
carry  on  the  circulation  in  the  fcetus-ftate,  another  paf- 
fage  was  neceffary.  The  blood  in  the  right  auricle  of 
the  heart,  inftead  of  pairing  into  the  pulmonary  artery, 
and,  after  circulating  through  the  lungs,  returning  into 
the  left  auricle  by  the  pulmonary  vein,  paffo  directly 
from  the  right  to  the  left  auricle  through  an  aperture 
called  the  foramen  ovale,  which  is  fituated  in  the  partition 
of  the  heart  that  feparates  the  cavities  of  the  two  auri- 
cles. By  this  contrivance,  the  mafs  of  blood,  without 
deviating  into  the  lungs,  enters  the  aorta,  and  is  diftri- 
buted  over  every  part  of  the  body.  In  man,  and  the 
other  terreftrial  animals,  the  foramen  ovale  of  the  heart, 
which  permits  the  foetus  to  live  without  refpiration,  clofes 
the  moment  after  birth,  and  remains  (hut  during  life. 
Animals  of  this  conftrudion  can  neither  live  without  air? 
nor  remain  long  under  water,  without  being  fuffocated. 

But,  in  the  feal,  walrus,  and  other  amphibious  animals, 
the  foramen  ovale  continues  open  during  life,  though  the 
mothers  bring  forth  on  land,  and  refpiration  commences 
immediately  after  birth.  By  means  of  this  perpetual 
aperture  in  the  feptum,  or  partition,  of  the  heart,  which 
allows  a  direct  communication  of  the  blood  from  the 
vena  cava  to  the  .aorta,  thefe  animals  enjoy  the  privilege 
of  refpiring,  or  not,  at  their  pleafure. 

This  fmgularity  in  the  ftru&ure  of  the  heart,  and  the 
confequent  capacity  of  living  equally  on  land  and  in 
water,  muft.neceffarily  produce  fome  peculiarities  in  the 
manners  and  difpofitions  of  amphibious  animals.  The 
feal,  accordingly,  whofe  hiflory  is  bed  known,  may  be 
confidered  as  holding  the  empire  of  the  filent  ocean.  To 
this  dignity  he  is  entitled  by  his  voice,  his  figure,  and 
his  intelligence,  which  render  him  fo  fuperior  to  the 

fifties. 


68  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

fifties,  that  they  feem  to  belong  to  another  order  of  be- 
ings. Though  his  oeconomy  be  very  different  from  that 
of  our  domeitic  animals,  he  is  fufceptible  of  a  fpecies  of 
education.  He  is  reared  by  putting  him  frequently  in 
water.  He  is  taught  to  give  a  falute  with  his  head  and  his 
voice.  He  approaches  when  called  upon.  His  fenfes  are 
equally  acute  as  thofe  of  any  quadruped  ;  and,  of  courfe, 
his  fenfations  and  intellect  are  equally  a&ive.  Both  are 
exhibited  in  the  gentlenefs  of  his  manners,  his  focial  dif- 
pofition,  his  aiTeclion  for  the  female,  his  anxious  attention 
to  his  offspring,  and  the  expreflive  modulation  of  his 
voice.  Befides,  he  enjoys  advantages  which  are  peculiar 
to  him.  He  is  neither  afraid  of  cold  nor  of  heat.  He 
lives  indifferently  on  herbs,  flefh,  or  fim.  He  inhabits, 
without  inconvenience,  water,  land,  or  ice.  When  af- 
fiftance  is  neceffary,  the  feals  underftand  and  mutually 
affift  one  another.  The  young  diftinguifh  their  mother 
in  the  midft  of  a  numerous  troop.  They  know  her  voice; 
and,  when  me  calls,  they  never  fail  to  obey. 

Before  difmiffing  this  branch  of  the  fubject,  the  ele- 
phant mud  not  be  parTed  over  in  filence.  His  ftructure  is 
uncommon,  and  fo  are  his  talents.  The  elephant  is  the 
largefl  and  moil  magnificent  animal  that  at  prefent  treads 
the  earth.  Though  he  daily  devours  great  quantities  of 
herbage,  leaves,  and  branches  of  trees,  he  has  but  one  fto- 
mach,  and  does  not  ruminate.  This  want,  however,  is  fup- 
plied  by  the  magnitude  and  length  of  his  inteftines,and  par- 
ticularly of  the  colon,  which  is  two  or  three  feet  in  dia- 
mettr  by  fifteen  or  twenty  in  length.  In  proportion  to 
the  fize  of  the  elephant,  his  eyes  are  very  fmall ;  but  they 
are  lively,  brilliant,  and  capable  of  a  pathetic  expreflion 
of  fentiment.  He  turns  them  ilowly,  and  with  mildnefs, 
toward  his  matter.  When  he  fpeaks,  the  animal  regards 
him  with  an  eye  of  friendfhip  and  attention.  He  feems 
to  reflect  with  deliberation,  and  never  determines  until  he 
has  examined,  without  pailion  or  precipitation,  the  orders 
which  he  is  defired  to  obey.  The  dog,  whofe  eyes  are 
very  expreffive,  is  too  prompt  and  vivacious  to  allow  us 
to  diftinguifh  with  eafe  the  fucceflive  fhades  of  his  fenfa- 
tions. But,  as  the  elephant  is  naturally  grave  and  mode- 
rate, 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  69 

rate,  we  perceive  in  his  eyes  the  order  and  fucceffion  of 
his  thoughts.  His  ears  are  very  large,  and  much  longer, 
even  in  proportion  to  his  body,  than  thofe  of  the  afs. 
They  lie  flat  on  the  head,  and  are  commonly  pendulous ; 
but  he  can  raife  and  move  them  with  fuch  facility,  that 
he  ufes  them  as  a  fan  to  cool  himfelf,  and  to  defend  his 
eyes  from  duft  and  infects.  His  ear  is  likewife  remarka- 
bly fine  ;  for  he  delights  in  the  found  of  mufical  inftru- 
ments,  and  moves  in  cadence  to  the  trumpet,  and  labour. 
But,  in  the  ftructure  of  the  elephant,  the  mod  fmgular 
organ  is  his  trunk,  or  probofcis.  It  is  compofed  of  mem- 
branes, nerves,  and  mufcles  ;  and  it  is  at  once  an  mftru- 
ment  of  feeling  and  of  motion.  The  animal  can  not  only 
move  and  bend  the  trunk,  but  he  can  contract,  lengthen, 
and  turn  it  on  all  fides.  The  extremity  of  the  trunk  ter- 
minates in  a  protuberance  that  ftretches  out  on  the  vpner 
fide  in  the  form  of  a  finger ;  by  means  of  which  he  lifts  from 
the  ground  the  final  left  pieces  of  money  ;  he  felects  herbs, 
and  flowers,  and  picks  them  up  one  by  one;  he  unties  the 
knots  of  ropes,  opens  and  ihuts  gates  by  turning  the  keys, 
or  pufhing  back  the  bolts.  In  the  middle  of  this  protu- 
berance or  finger,  there  is  a  cavity  in  the  form  of  a  cup, 
and,  in  the  bottom  of  the  cup  are  the  apertures  of  the 
two  organs  of  fmelling  and  refpiration.  This  hand  of 
the  elephant  poifelTes  feveral  advantages  over  that  of  the 
human.  It  is  more  flexible,  and  equally  dexterous  in  lay- 
ing hold  of  objects.  Befides,  he  has  his  nofe  in  his  hand, 
and  is  enabled  to  combine  the  power  of  his  lungs  with  the 
action  of  his  finger,  and  to  attract  fluids  by  a  ilrong  fuc- 
tion,  or  to  raife  heavy  bodies  by  applying  to  them  the 
edge  of  his  trunk,  and  making  a  vacuum  within  by  a  vi- 
gorous infpiration.  Hence,  delicacy  of  feeling,  acute- 
nefs  of  fmelimg,  facility  of  movement,  and  the  power  of 
fuction,  are  united  at  the  extremity  of  the  elephant's  trunk. 
Of  all  the  inftruments  which  Nature  has  befrowed  on  her 
moil  favourite  productions,  the  trunk  of  the  elephant  feems 
to  be  the  moft  complete,  as  well  as  the  moft  admirable.  It 
is  not  only  an  organic  inftrument,  but  a  triple  fenfe,  whofe 
united  functions  exhibit  the  effects  of  that  wonderful  fa- 
gacity  which  exalts  the  elephant  above  all  other  quadru- 
peds. 


7o  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

peds.  He  is  not  fo  fubje&5  as  fome  other  animals,  to 
errors  of  vifion ;  becaufe  he  quickly  rectifies  them  by 
the  fenfe  of  touch ;  and,  by  ufmg  his  trunk  as  a  long 
arm,  for  the  purpofe  of  touching  remote  objects,  he  ac- 
quires, like  man,  clear  ideas  of  diftances.  But,  other 
animals,  except  fuch  as  have  a  kind  of  arms  and  hands, 
can  only  acquire  ideas  of  diilances  by  traverfmg  fpace 
with  their  bodies.  Delicacy  of  feeling,  the  flexibility  of 
the  trunk,  the  power  of  faction,  the  fenfe  of  fmelling, 
and  the  length  of  the  arm,  convey  ideas  of  the  fubftance 
of  bodies,  of  their  external  form,  of  their  weight,  of 
their  falutary  or  noxious  qualities,  and  of  their  diftances. 
Thus,  by  the  fame  organs,  and  by  a  fimultaneous  ad, 
the  elephant  feels,  perceives,  and  judges  of,  feveral  things 
at  one  time.  It  is  by  virtue  of  this  combination  of  fen- 
fes  and  faculties  in  the  trunk  that  the  elephant  is  enabled 
to  perform  fo  many  wonderful  actions,  notwithstanding 
the  enormity  of  his  mafs,  and  the  difproportions  of  his 
form.  The  thicknefs  and  rigidity  of  his  body  ;  the  ihort- 
nefs  and  ftiiFnefs  of  his  neck;  the  fmallnefs  of  his  head; 
the  largenefs  of  his  ears,  nofe,  and  tufks  ;  the  minute- 
nefs  of  his  eyes,  mouth,  genitals,  and  tail;  his  llraight, 
clumfey,  and  alrnoft  inflexible  limbs  ;  the  mortnefs  and 
fmallnefs  of  his  feet ;  the  thicknefs  and  callofity  of  his 
fkin  ;  all  thefe  deformities  are  the  more  obvious  and  difa- 
greeable,  becaufe  they  are  modelled  on  a  large  fcale,  and 
.mod  of  them  are  peculiar  to  the  elephant. 

From  this  iingular  conformation,  the  animal  is  fubje&ed 
to  many  inconveniences.  He  moves  his  head  with  diffi- 
culty, and  cannot  turn  back  without  making  a  large 
circuit.  For  this  reafon,  the  hunters  attack  him  behind,  or 
on  the  flanks,  and  avoid  the  effects  of  his  rage  by  circu- 
lar movements.  He  cannot  feize  any  object  on  the  ground 
with  his  mouth,  becaufe  his  neck  is  too  ftiff  to  allow  his 
head  to  reach  the  earth.  He  is,  therefore,  obliged  to  lay 
hold  of  his  food,  and  even  of  his  drink,  with  his  nofe, 
and  then  convey  them  to  his  mouth.  It  is  likewife  a  con- 
fequence  of  this  ftruclure,  that  the  young  elephants  are 
faid  to  fuck  with  their  nofe,  and  afterwards  pour  the  milk 
into  their  gullet. 

OF 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  71 


OF  THE  STRUCTURE  OF  BIRDS. 


FROM  the  figure  and  movements  of  the  feathered 
tribes,  we  Ihould  be  led  to  imagine  that  the  ftru&ure  of 
their  organs  was  extremely  different  from  that  of  qua- 
drupeds. Their  ceconomy  and  manner  of  living  required 
fome  variations  in  their  frame.  But  thofe  variations  are 
by  no  means  fo  many  or  fo  great  as  might  be  expected. 
Inftead  of  hairs,  their  bodies  are  covered  with  feathers, 
which,  befide  the  beautiful  variety  of  their  colours,  pro- 
tecl  this  clafs  of  animals  from  the  affaults  of  rain  and  cold. 
They  have  only  a  couple  of  legs  ;  but  Nature  has  furnift- 
ed  them  with  two  additional  inftruments  of  motion,  by 
which  they  are  enabled  to  rife  from  the  furface  of  the 
earth,  and  to  fly  with  amazing  rapidity  through  the  air- 
The  wings  are  articulated  with  the  breaft-bone,  and 
their  motions  are  performed  by  mufcles  of  remarkable 
flrength.  Many  birds  are  continually  paffing  through 
hedges  and  thickets.  To  defend  their  eyes,  therefore, 
from  external  injuries,  as  well  as  from  too  much  light 
when  flying  in  oppofition  to  the  rays  of  the  fun,  they 
are  furriifhed  with  a  membrane  called  membrana  niflitans* 
which,  like  a  curtain,  can  at  pleafure  be  drawn  over  the 
whole  eye.  This  covering  is  neither  opaque  nor  pellucid  ; 
but,  being  fomewhat  tranfparent,  it  allows  as  many  rays 
to  enter  as  render  any  object  juft  vifible,  and  enable  them 
to  direct  their  progrefs  through  the  air.  It  is  by  the  in- 
ftrumentality  of  this  membrane  that  the  eagle  looks  at 
the  fun.  The  feathers  of  all  birds  are  inferted  into  the 
fkin  in  fuch  a  manner  that  they  naturally  lie  backward 
from  the  head  ;  and  allow  the  rain  to  run  off  their  bodies, 
and,  by  turning  their  heads  in  oppofition  to  the  wind, 
prevent  the  wind  from  rumpling  their  feathers,  and  re- 
tarding their  flight.  Befide  this  provifion,  the  rump  of 
birds  terminates  in  a  large  gland,  which  fecretes  an  oily 
fubftance.  When  the  feathers  are  too  dry,  or  any  way 
difordered,  the  animals  fqueeze  this  gland  with  their  bills, 

extracl 


72  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

extract  the  oil,  and  with  it  they  befmear  and  drefs  the 
feathers.  By  this  means  the  adniiflion  of  water  is  totally 
prevented.  Birds  have  no  feparate  ribs  ;  but  the  bread- 
bone,  which  is  very  large,  joins  the  back-bone,  and  fup- 
plies  their  place. 

With  regard  to  the  external  figure  of  birds,  the  form 
of  their  bodies  is  nicely  adapted  to  their  manners,  and  the 
mode  of  life  they  are  defhned  to  purfue.  By  ftriking 
the  air  with  their  wings,  they  move  forward  in  that  ele- 
ment, and  their  tail  ferves  them  as  a  rudder  to  direct  their 
courfe.  Their  breafl-bone,  inflead  of  being  flat,  rifes 
gradually  from  the  fpine  and  terminates  in  a  (harp  ridge, 
or  keel,  which  enables  them  to  cut  the  air  with  greater 
facility.  For  the  fame  purpofe,  the  heads  of  birds  are 
proportionally  fmaller  than  thofe  of  quadrupeds,  and  mod 
of  them  terminate  in  light  {harp-pointed  beaks.  They 
are  likewife  deprived  of  external  ears  *,  and  of  protube- 
rant noftrils.  Their  tails,  inftead  of  vertebrae,  mufcles, 
and  Ikin,  confift  entirely  of  feathers.  They  have  no  pen- 
dulous fcrotum,  no  bladder,  no  flefhy  uterus.  Neither 
have  they  an  epiglottis,  though  many  of  them  pofTefs 
great  powers  of  modulation,  and  fome  of  them  may  even 
be  taught  to  articulate  words.  To  lighten  their  beaks, 
they  are  deprived  of  lips  and  teeth ;  and  their  abdomen 
or  belly  is  proportionally  fmall  and  narrow. 

From  this  general  view  of  the  external  figure  and  flruc- 
ture  of  birds,  it  is  apparent,  that  Nature  has  defigned 
them  for  two  diftinct  kinds  of  motion.  They  can,  at 
pleafure,  either  walk  on  the  furface  of  the  earth,  or  mount 
aloft,  and  penetrate  the  airy  regions  with  prodigious  fwift- 
nefs. 

Some  peculiarities  in  the  internal  ftru&ure  of  birds 
deferve  our  notice. 

Like  quadrupeds,  the  feathered  tribes  are  divided  into 
granivorous  and  carnivorous  ;  and  their  manners  and  dif- 
pofitions  correfpond  with  their  internal  and  external  con- 
formation. 

In 

*  Although  birds  are  deftiiute  of  external  ears,  properly  fo  called,  yet  in  the 
greater  number  of  this  cxtenlive  clafs  of  animals  the  meatus  auditorms,  or  external 
orifice  leading  to  die  ears,  is  furrounded  by  feathers  which  are  elegantly  difpo- 
fed,  like  diverging  radii,  and  appear  to  be  peculiarly  adapted  for  receiving  found, 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  73 

In  the  granivorous  clafs,  the  cefophagus,  or  gullet,  runs 
down  the  neck,  and  terminates  in  a  pretty  large  mem- 
branous fac,  called  the  ingluvies,  or  craw,  where  the  food 
is  macerated,  and  partly  diffolved  by  a  liquor  fecreted 
from  glands  fpread  over  the  furface  of  this  fac.  Some 
birds,  as  the  rooks  and  the  pigeon  kind,  have  the  power 
of  bringing  up  the  food  from  this  fac  into  their  ..louths, 
and  feeding  their  young  with  it  in  a  half-digefted  form. 
After  macerating  for  fome  time,  the  food  paries  through 
the  remainder  of  the  gullet  into  another  fpecies  of  fto- 
mach  denominated  ventriculus  fuccenturiatus ',  which  is  a 
continuation  of  the  gullet.  Here  the  food  receives  a  far- 
ther •  dilution.  From  this  fecond  ftomach,  the  food  is 
tranfmitted  to  the  gizzard,  or  true  ftomach,  which  confifts 
of  two  very  ftrong  mufcles,  covered  externally  with  a 
tendinous  fubftance,  and  lined  with  a  thick,  firm  mem- 
brane. The  remarkable  ftrength  of  the  gizzard  was 
formerly  fuppofed  to  affift  the  digeflion  of  granivorous 
birds  by  attrition.  But,  this  notion  has  of  late  been  en- 
tirely exploded  ;  for  Doctor  Stevens,  and,  after  him,  Spal- 
lanzani,  have  demonftrated,  by  unequivocal  experiments, 
that  digeflion  is  performed  folely  by  the  diffolving  powers 
of  the  gailric  juices  *.  The  other  inteftines  are  propor- 
tionally larger,  and  much  longer,  than  thofe  of  the  car- 
nivorous birds. 

The  ftructure  of  the  heart,  in  granivorous  birds,  is 
nearly  the  fame  with  that  of  quadrupeds. 

The  lungs  hang  not  loofe  in  the  cavity  of  the  thorax, 
but  are  fixed  to  the  back-bone :  Neither  are  they  divided 
into  lobes,  as  in  man  and  other  animals  whofe  fpines 
admit  of  confiderable  motion.  They  are  red,  fpongy  bo- 
dies, covered  with  a  membrane  that  is  pervious,  and  com- 
municates with  the  large  Yeficles,  or  air-bags,  which  are 
fpread  over  the  whole  abdomen.  Thefe  veficles,  when 
diftended  with  air,  render  the  bodies  of  birds  fpecifically 
light.  They  likewife  fupply  the  place  of  a  diaphragm, 
and  ftrong  abdominal  mufcles.  They  produce  the  fame 
effects  on  the  vifcera  as  thefe  mufcles  would  have  done, 

K  without 

*  See  Stevens  DifTert.  Med.  Inaug,  DC  Alimentorum  Concoflione,  EJin.  1777, 
and  Spall  anzani,  S. 


74  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

without  the  inconveniency  of  giving  an  additional  weight 
to  the  body. 

Birds  have  no  bladder  of  urine  :  But  a  blueifh-colour- 
ed  canal,  or  ureter,  is  fent  off  from  each  kidney,  and 
terminates  in  the  rectum.  Their  urine  is  difcharged  along 
with  the  fasces.  It  is  a  whitifh  fubftance,  and  turns  chalky 
when  expofed  to  the  air. 

The  tefticles  of  the  male  are  fituated  on  each  fide  of 
the  back-bone,  and  are  very  large  in  proportion  to  the 
fize  of  the  animal.  From  the  tefticles  proceed  two  fe- 
minal  duds,  which  at  firfl  are  ftraight,  but  afterwards 
acquire  a  convoluted  form,  as  in  the  epidydymus  of  man. 
Thefe  duels  terminate  in  the  penis,  of  which  the  cock 
has  two,  one  on  each  fide  of  the  common  cloaca.  They 
are  very  fniall  and  Ihort ;  and,  from  this  circumftance, 
they  long  efcaped  the  notice  of  anatornifts. 

In  the  female,  the  clufter  of  yolks,  being  analogous  to 
the  human  ovaria,  are  attached  to  the  back-bone  by  a 
membrane.  This  membrane  is  very  thin,  and  continues 
down  to  th«  uterus.  The  yolk,  after  feparating  from  its 
ftalk,  pafTes  into  a  canal  called  the  infundibulum,  where 
it  receives  a  gelatinous  liquor,  which,  with  what  it  farther 
acquires  in  the  uterus,  compofes  the  white  of  the  egg. 
The  uterus  is  a  large  bag,  fituated  at  the  end  of  the  in- 
fundibulum,  and  is  full  of  wrinkles  on  the  infide.  Here 
the  egg  receives  its  lafl  covering,  or  '{hell,  and  is  pumed 
out  of  the  vagina  at  an  aperture  placed  immediately  above 
the  anus. 

From  this  defcription  of  the  ilru&ure  of  granivorous 
birds,  the  analogy  between  them  and  the  herbivorous 
quadrupeds  is  conspicuous.  In  both,  the  number  of  their 
ftomachs,  the  length  and  capacity  of  their  inteftines,  and 
the  quality  of  their  food,  are  very  fimilar.  But,  this 
analogy  is  not  confined  to  ftruclure  and  organs  :  It  extends 
to  manners  and  difpofitions.  Like  the  herbivorous  qua- 
drupeds, this  order  of  birds  are  diftinguifhed  by  the  gen- 
tlenefs  and  complacency  of  their  tempers.  Contented 
with  the  feeds  of  plants,  or  fmall  infecls,  the  flronger 
never  wage  war  with  the  weaker.  Their  chief  attention 
is  occupied  in  procuring  food,  in  hatching  and  rearing 

.  their 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  75 

their  young ;  and  their  vigilance  is  kept  perpetually  ac- 
tive in  eluding  the  fnares  of  men,  and  other  rapacious  ani- 
mals. The  whole  are  a  timid  race,  and  many  of  them 
are  fo  tractable  that  they  may  eaiilybe  rendered  domeftic. 
Man,  accordingly,  ever  attentive  to  his  intereil,  has  not 
failed  to  derive  advantage  from  the  innocence  and  ftupi- 
dity  of  thefe  animals.  Of  the  gallinaceous  and  duck 
kind,  which  are  the  moil  prolific,  and  confequently  the 
mod  profitable,  he  has  chiefly  felefted  the  hen,  the  goofe, 
the  duck,  the  turkey,  and  the  peacock.  In  this  feleclion 
he  has  difcovered  his  fagacity ;  for,  inflead  of  pairing, 
thefe  birds  are  polygamous,  one  male  being  fufficient  to 
fertilize  a  number  of  females,  which  is  a  great  faving  in 
the  article  of  food. 

With  regard  to  carnivorous  birds,  their  general  con- 
formation is  nearly  the  fame  with  that  of  the  granivo- 
rous  kind.  They  have  the  fame  number  of  ftomachs  ; 
but  all  of  them  are  fmaller,  and  weaker.  Their  inteftines 
are  alfo  much  fhorter.  To  enable  them  to  procure  food, 
they  are  obliged  to  fly  quickly,  and  continue  long  on  the 
wing.  Their  wings,  accordingly,  are  proportionally  long- 
er, and  they  have  more  ftrength  in  their  mufcles.  For 
the  purpofe  of  feizing  and  devouring  prey,  Nature  has 
bellowed  on  them  ftrong  hooked  bills,  and  long  fharp 
claws,  or  pounces.  They  have  alfo  large  heads,  fhort 
necks,  ftrong  brawny  thighs,  arid  fharp-lighted  eyes. 

Like  rapacious  quadrupeds,  birds  of  prey  are  capable 
of  enduring  hunger  for  a  great  length  of  time.  This 
faculty  is,  perhaps,  acquired  partly  by  habit ;  becaufe  the 
obtaining  of  their  food  is  often  very  precarious.  The 
females  are  larger,  ftronger,  and  more  beautiful  both  in 
ihape  and  plumage,  than  the  males.  For  this  reafon,  the 
male  hawks  are  called  tercels,  or  thirds,  becaufe  they  are 
fuppofed  to  be  one  third  lefs  than  the  females.  Nature 
feems  to  have  beftowed  this  fuperiority  of  fize  and  flrength 
upon  the  female,  becaufe  fhe  is  obliged  to  procure  food 
both  for  herfelf  and  for  her  progeny. 

The  analogy  between  the  ftruchire  of  rapacious  birds 
and  carnivorous  quadrupeds  is  obvious.  Both  of  them 
are  provided  with  weapons  which  indicate  deftrudion  and 

rapine. 


76  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

rapine.  Their  manners  are  alfo  fierce  and  unfocial.  They 
never,  if  the  vulture  be  excepted,  herd  together  in  flocks, 
like  the  inoffenfive  granivorous  tribes.  When  not  on  the 
wing,  they  conceal  themfelves  on  the  top  of  fequeftered 
rocks,  or  in  the  depths  of  the  forefts,  where  they  fpend 
their  time  in  fullen  folitude.  Thofe  of  them  which  feed 
upon  carrion,  as  the  raven,  have  the  fenfe  of  fmelling  fo 
acute,  that  they  fcent  dead  carcafes  at  amazing  diftances. 

Befide  thefe  great  divifions  of  birds  into  granivorous 
and  rapacious,  whofe  manners  and  difpofitions  perfectly 
coincide  with  the  ftructure  of  their  bodies,  there  are  other 
tribes  to  whom  Nature  has  given  peculiar  organs.  In  all 
thefe  deviations  from  the  common  ftru&ure,  a  fmgularity 
in  the  mode  of  living,  and  the  ceconomy  of  the  animal, 
is  the  invariable  refult«. 

Like  the  amphibious  animals,  a  number  of  fowls  live 
chiefly  in  the  water,  and  feed  upon  fifties  and  aquatic  in- 
fects. To  enable  them  to  fwim  and  to  dive  in  queft  of 
food,  their  toes  are  connected  together  by  broad  mem- 
branes, or  webs.  By  ftretcbing  their  toes,  arid  finking 
the  water  backward  with  thefe  webs,  their  bodies  are 
moved  forward,  and  they  employ  their  tail  as  a  rudder  to 
direct  their  courfe.  Without  thefe  additional  inftruments, 
fowls  could  not  fwim  ;  and,  accordingly,  fuch  birds  as 
are  not  provided  with  webs  never  take  to  the  water.  But, 
thofe  furnifhed  with  webs  have  fuch  a  ftrong  propenfity 
to  water,  that,  when  reftrained  from  their  favourite  ele- 
ment, they  difcover  the  greatefl  uneafmefs,  and,  when 
their  liberty  is  reftored,  they  fly  in  a  direct  courfe  either 
to  the  fea,  a  river,  or  a  lake. 

There  is  another  tribe  of  aquatic  birds,  fome  of  which 
feed  upon  fifties  and  infects,  and  others  live  principally 
by  fucking  certain  juices  from  mud.  Both  thefe  kinds 
frequent  marfliy  places,  or  the  margins  of  lakes  and  rivers. 
They  do  not  fwim,  but  wade,  in  queft  of  food.  This 
finguiarity  in  their  manners  required  a  correfpondent  va- 
riation in  their  form  and  ftructure.  To  enable  them  to 
wade  in  waters  and  in  mires,  Nature  has  provided  them 
with  long  legs,  naked  of  feathers  for  a  confiderable  fpace 
above  the  knees.  Their  toes  are  not,  like  thofe  of  the 

fwimmers. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  77 

fwimmers,  connected  by  continued  membranous  webs' 
Mod  of  them  have  likewife  very  long  necks  and  bills,  to 
enable  them  to  fearch  for  and  apprehend  their  food.  To 
thefe  tribes  belong  the  crane,  the  herons,  the  bittern,  or 
miredrum,  the  flork,  the  fpoon-bill,  the  woodcock,  the 
fnipe,  and  many  other  fpecies. 

Having  given  a  general  idea  of  the  ftru&ure  and  ceco- 
nomy  of  birds,  we  mail  next  make  a  few  remarks  on  the 
form  and  manners  of  fifties. 


OF  THE  STRUCTURE  AND  ORGANS  OF  FISHES. 

IT  is  one  great  and  benevolent  intention  of  Nature, 
that  no  part  of  the  univerfe  mould  be  deprived  of  inhabi- 
tants. The  earth,  the  air,  the  waters,  are  full  of  living 
beings,  who  are  not  only  confcious  of  their  evidence,  but 
enjoy  degrees  of  happinefs  proportioned  to  their  natures, 
and  the  purpofes  they  are  deflined  to  anfwer  in  the  gene- 
ral fcale  of  animation.  The  different  elements  in  which 
they  live  neceiTarily  required  a  variety  in  their  form,  their 
food,  and  their  manners.  The  inhabitants  of  the  earth 
and  air  have  already  been  partially  defcribed  :  thofe  of  the 
waters  are  next  to  be  confidered. 

The  bodies  of  moft  fifties  are  covered  with  a  ftrong, 
thick  fkin,  in  which  numherlefs  fcales  are  inferted  in  an 
imbricated  form,  or  like  tiles  on  the  roofs  of  houfes. 
Many  of  them,  and  particularly  thofe  which  are  fhaped 
like  the  cod,  the  trout,  and  the  haddock,  have  a  longitu- 
dinal line  on  each  fide.  In  thefe  lines  there  are  a  number 
of  fmall  ducts,  or  apertures,  which  throw  out  a  mucous 
fubftance  that  lubricates  their  {kins,  and  feems  to  anfwer 
the  fame  purpofes  as  the  mucous  glands  or  duels  placed  in 
moft  of  our  internal  organs. 

Fifties  are  deftitute  of  hands  and  feet.  Their  progref- 
five  motion,  therefore,  is  performed  in  a  manner  different 
from  that  of  quadrupeds  and  birds.  Their  inftruments 
of  motion  are  fins,  or  machines  confifting  of  a  number 
of  elaftk  beams,  connected  to  one  another  by  firm  mem- 
branes 


78  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

branes.  Their  tails  are  of  the  fame  texture.  Their  fpine 
is  remarkably  flexible  toward  the  pofterior  part  of  the 
body,  and  here  the  flrongefl  mufcles  are  likewife  inferted. 
They  have  a  power  of  contracting  and  dilating  their  tails  at 
plealure  ;  by  which  means,  and  by  the  afliftance  of  the 
fins,  they  move  forward  in  the  fame  manner  as  a  boat  with 
oars  on  its  fides,  and  a  rudder  at  its  (tern.  Fimes  have  no 
neck :  As  they  feek  their  food  in  a  horizontal  pofition, 
and  can  move  their  bodies  either  upward  or  downward,  a 
long  neck  would  neceffarily  have  impeded  their  motion 
through  the  water. 

The  form  of  fimes  is  extremely  various  ;  and,  if  their 
hiftory  were  fufficiently  known,  the  connection  between 
their  ilru&ure  and  their  manners  would  be  equally  appa- 
rent as  in  the  other  tribes  with  which  we  are  better  ac- 
quainted. Some  fifties  are  long  and  cylindrical,  as  the 
fea-ferpent,  and  all  the  eel-fhaped  fpecies.  The  eel-kind, 
from  their  figure,  are  enabled  to  trail  their  bodies  along 
the  bottom,  and  to  conceal  themfelves  below  the  fand,  or 
mud.  Others  are  lefs  cylindrical,  and  proportionally 
ihorter,  as  the  mackrel,  the  cod,  the  herring,  the  falmon, 
&c.  Thefe,  from  the  number  and  pofition  of  their  fins, 
as  well  as  from  the  fhape  of  their  bodies,  are  deftined  for 
quicker  motion,  and  for  travelling  to  great  diftances  in 
queit  of  food,  or  for  fpawning  in  fhoals  or  in  rivers.  Others, 
as  the  flounder,  the  fkate,  the  turbet,  torpedo,  &c.  are 
broad  and  comprefied.  Thefe,  like  the  eel-kind,  frequent 
muddy  bottoms.  Others  are  triangular,  quadrangular, 
round,  &c.  Befide  thofe  which  approach  to  regular  fi- 
gures, the  variations  and  cornpofitions  are  fo  numerous, 
that  the  forms  of  fifhes  are  much  more  diverfified  than 
thofe  of  quadrupeds,  or  birds.  To  defend  themfelves  a- 
gainft  their  enemies,  many  fimes  are  armed  with  flrong, 
{harp  fpines,  or  prickles.  For  the  fame  purpofe,  and  like- 
wife for  wounding,  or  killing  their  prey,  fome  have  !a  large 
horn  on  their  front,  and  others  a  fword,  or  rather  a  faw, 
which  are  tremendous  weapons.  The  more  timid  and 
defenceiefs  tribes  are  endowed  with  the  faculty  of  rapid 
motion  ;  and  fome  of  them  have  fins  fo  large  and  flexible, 
that,  when  hard  purfued,  they  are  enabled  to  leave  their 

natural 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          79 

natural  element,  to  dart  through  the  air  to  confiderable 
diftances,  and  difappoint  the  defigns  of  their  enemies. 

Fifties  are  as  much  diverfified  in  fize  as  in  figure.  The 
ocean  produces  the  largeil  animals  which  now  inhabit  this 
globe.  The  enormous  mafles  of  the  whale  and  walrus 
tribes  far  exceed  thofe  of  the  elephant,  rhinoceros,  or  ri- 
ver-horfe,  the  largeft  terreflrial  animals  of  which  we  have 
any  proper  knowledge.  From.  the  immenfe  bones,  how- 
ever, found  in  Siberia,  and  many  parts  of  Europe,  we 
are  induced  to  believe,  that  land  animals  have  formerly 
exifted  whofe  fize  muft  have  been  much  larger  than  that 
of  the  prefent  elephant.  This  animal,  whofe  fpecies  is 
now  fuppofed  to  be  extinguished,  is  known  among  natur- 
alifts  by  the  denomination  of  the  mammouth.  Near  the 
river  Ohio,  fome  prodigious  bones  and  teeth  have  lately 
been  difcovered,  which  indicate  an  animal  of  incredible 
magnitude*. 

With  regard  to  internal  ftrudure,  fifties,  like  land-ani- 
mals, are  furniftied  with  a  back-bone  and  ribs,  which  run 
from  the  head  to  the  tail.  To  thefe,  the  bones  of  the 
head,  and  the  fins,  all  the  mufcles  and  inftruments  of  mo- 
tion, are  attached. 

The  mouths  of  moft  filhes  are  furnifhed  with  teeth  ; 
but  in  fome,  as  the  mullet,  fturgeon,  &c.  the  teeth  are 
wanting.  In  fome,  the  teeth  are  fituated  on  the  jaw-bones, 
in  others,  on  the  tongue  and  palate.  The  teeth  of  fifties 
are  principally  defigned  for  laying  hold  of  and  detaining 
their  prey,  which  they  generally  fwallow  entire.  For 
this  purpofe,  the  teeth  are  commonly  ferrated,  or  bent 
inward,  like  tenter-hooks.  By  this  ftru&ure,  fmall  fifties 
are  eafily  forced  downwards,  and  their  return  is  at  the 
fame  time  prevented. 

In  fifties,  the  organ  of  fmellihg  is  large  ;  and  they  have 
a  power  of  contracting  and  dilating,  at  pleafure,  the 
'entry  into  their  nofe. 

It  was  formerly  doubted  whether  fifties  were  endowed* 
with  the  fenfe  of  hearing.  But,  that  doubt  is  now  fully 
removed  ;  becaufe  it  has  been  found,  fhat,  like  other 


*  A  Memoir  on  the  fubjea  of  thefe  large  American  bones  will  foon  be  laid  be- 
fore the  Philofophical  Society  of  this  city. 


So  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

animals,  they  have  a  complete  organ  of  hearing,  and  that 
water  is  a  proper  medium  for  the  conveyance  of  found. 
Befides,  in  the  fkate,  and  fome  other  genera,  the  learned 
and  ingenious  Dr.  Monro,  Profelfor  of  Anatomy  in  the 
College  of  Edinburgh,  has  lately  difcovered  an  aperture 
which  leads  directly  to  the  internal  parts  of  the  ear. 

The  gullet  of  fifties  is  fo  fhort  that  it  is  hardly  to  be 
diftinguifhed  from  the  flomach,  which  is  of  an  oblong 
figure.  The  guts  are  very  fhort,  making  only  three  con- 
volutions, the  laft  of  which  terminates  in  the  common 
vent  for  the  feces,  urine,  and  femen.  From  this  ilruc- 
ture  of  the  flomach  and  inteftines,  analogy  would  lead 
us  to  conclude,  that  fifties  live  chiefly  upon  animal  food. 
Experience,  accordingly,  teaches  us,  that  almofl  all  fifhes 
prey  upon  the  fmaller  kinds,  and  even  devour  their  own 
young.  The  liver  is  proportionally  large,  of  a  whiuifh 
colour,  and  fituated  on  the  left  fide.  The  gall-bladder 
lies  at  a  confiderable  diftance  from  the  liver,  and  difchar- 
ges  the  gall  into  the  gut.  In  fifties,  the  organs  of  gene- 
ration are  two  bags  fituated  in  the  abdomen,  and  uniting 
near  the  anus.  In  the  male,  thefe  bags  are  filled  with  a 
thick  whitifh  fubftance  called  the  milt,  and  in  the  female 
with  an  infinite  number  of  minute  eggs  called  the  roe. 
At  the  feafon  of  fpawning,  the  bags  of  both  male  and  fe- 
male are  greatly  diftended  ;  but,  at  other  times,  the  male 
organs  can  fcarcely  be  diftingufhed  from  thofe  of  the 
female. 

The  fwimnfing  bladder  is  an  oblong,  white,  membran- 
ous bag,  which  contains  nothing  but  a  quantity  of  elaftic 
air.  It  lies  clofe  to  the  back-bone,  and  has  a  pretty  ftrong 
rnufcular  coat.  By  contracting  this  coat,  and,  of  courfe, 
condenfing  the  air  it  contains,  fome  fifties  are  enabled  to 
render  their  bodies  fpecifically  heavier  than  water,  and  to 
(ink  to  the  bottom  ;  and,  when  the  mufcular  fibres  ceafe 
to  act,  the  air  dilates,  and  makes  jheir  bodies  fpecifically 
lighter.  By  this  curious  piece  of  mechanilm,  the  animals 
have  the  power  of  finking  to  the  bottom,  or  of  rifing  to 
the  furface.  According  to  the  different  degrees  of  con- 
traction and  dilatation  of  this  bladder,  fifties  can,  at  plea- 
fur  e, 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  81 

fure,  keep  themfelves  higher  or  lower  in  the  water.  Hence 
flounders,  foles,  ikate,  and  other  fifties  which  have  no 
fwimming  bladder,  always  grovel  at  or  near  the  bottom. 
It  is  likewife  a  confequence  of  the  relaxation  of  this  blad- 
der, that  dead  fifties  which  are  furnifhed  with  it  uniformly 
rife  to  the  furface.  The  air-bag,  in  fome  fifties,  commu- 
nicates, by  a  duct,  with  the  gullet,  and,  in  others,  with 
the  ilomach.  At  the  upper  end  of  the  air-bag,  there  are 
red-coloured  glandular  bodies  connected  with  the  kidneys. 
From  the  kidneys  the  ureters  proceed  downward  to  their 
infertion  in  the  urinary  bladder,  which  lies  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  abdomen,  and  the  urethra  terminates  in  the 
anus. 

Fifties  have  a  membranous  diaphragm,  or  midriff,  that 
forms  a  fack  in  which  the  heart  is  contained.  The  heart 
is  of  a  triangular  figure.  It  has  only  one  auricle,  one 
ventricle,  and  one  great  artery.  This  artery,  inftead  of 
fupplying  all  the  parts  of  the  body,  as  in  the  frog,  is 
diftributed  entirely  on  the  gills.  All  the  branches  termi- 
nate there,  and  become  at  laft  fo  fmall  that  they  efcape 
the  naked  eye.  The  branchiae,  or  gills,  lie  in  two  large 
flits  on  each  fide  of  the  head,  and  are  analogous  to 
lungs  of  land-animals.  The  figure  of  the  gills  is  femi- 
circular,  and  on  each  fide  of  them  are  immenfe  numbers 
of  fibrils,  refembling  fringes.  The  gills  are  perpetually 
fubjected  to  an  alternate  motion  from  the  preflure  of  the 
water,  and  the  action  of  the  mufcles.  They  are  covered 
with  a  large  flap,  which  allows  an  exit  to  the  water  necef- 
farily  taken,  in  by  the  animals  every  time  their  mouths  are 
opened.  The  blood  is  again  collected  by  a  vail  number 
of  fmall  veins,  which,  inftead  of  going  back  a  fecond  time 
to  the  heart,  immediately  unite,  and  form  an  aorta  defcen- 
dens,  which  fends  off*  branches  to  fupply  all  the  parts  of 
the  body,  except  the  gills.  From  the  extremities  of  thefe 
branches  the  blood  is  collected  by  veins,  and  returned  to 
the  heart  nearly  in  the  fame  manner  as  in  ether  animals. 

The  organs  by  which  the  nutritious  part  of  the  /ood 
of  fifties  is  extracted  and  conveyed  to  the  general  mafs  of 
blood,  and  known  by  the  names  of  lacteal,  abforbent, 
and  lymphatic,  veflels,  are  fo  analogous  to  thofe  of  men 

L  and 


82  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

and  quadrupeds,  that  it  is  unneceffary  to  defcribe  them  *. 
For  the  fame  reafon,  no  defcription  mail  be  given  of  the 
nerves,  which,  as  in  other  animals,  proceed  from  the 
brain  and  fpinal  marrow,  and  are  diftributed  over  every 
part  of  the  body. 

Having  finimed  this  (ketch  of  the  (tru&ure  and  organs 
of  fames,  it  is  almoft  needlefs  to  remark,  that,  though 
they  live  in  a  different  element,  and  vary  greatly  from 
land-animals  in  figure,  Nature,  in  the  formation  of  their 
bodies,  in  the  mode  of  their  nutrition,  refpiration,  and 
fenfation,  has  acted  upon  the  fame  great  and  general 
plan. 

We  are,  now,  to  take  a  view  of  the  ftru&ure  of  in- 
fects, a  numerous  clafs  of  animals,  moft  of  whom  recede 
farther  from  the  common  mode  of  organization  than  any 
of  the  other  claffes. 


OF  THE  STRUCTURE  OF  INSECTS. 

IN  the  firfl  chapter,  a  few  obfervations  were  made 
concerning  the  ftruclure  and  organs  of  infects,  in  order 
to  fhow  more  clearly  the  analogies  between  animals  and 
vegetables.  Thefe  it  is  unneceffary  to  repeat.  We  fhall, 
therefore,  proceed  to  a  more  particular  examination  of 
the  ftru&ure  of  infects,  and  to  trace  the  connection  be- 
tween that  and  their  manners. 

Infects  exhibit  fuch  an  immenfe  variety  in  figure,  co- 
lour, and  difpofition  of  parts,  that  Naturalifts  have  found 
it  neceflary  to  arrange  them  into  different  tribes,  or  fa- 
milies. Thefe  tribes  are  diftinguifhed  from  one  another 
by  certain  peculiarities  in  the  ftructure  of  their  bodies. 

The  moil  general  divifion  of  infects  is  derived  from 

the 

*  It  may  not,  however,  be  improper  to  obferve,  that  the  conglobate,  or  lym- 
phatic glands,  which  feem  to  confiitute  an  efTential  part  of  the  abforbent  fyflem 
in  man,  in  quadrupeds,  and  in  birds,  have  not,  hitherto,  been  discovered  in  any 
genus  of  fifties.  But,  in  fifhes,  and  in  the  amphibious  animals,  which  are  like- 
•wife  deftitute  of  thefe  glands,  the  lymphatics  form  a  great  number  of  plexus  ;  and 
the  progrefs  of  the  lymph  being  thus  retarded,  M.  Mafcagni  fuppofes  that  all  the 
ufes  of  thefe  glands  are  anfwered  by  this  peculiar  arrangement  of  the  veflels  them- 
felves.  Birds  have  but  few  conglobate  glands:  but,  to  make  amends  for  this  cir- 
cumflance,  Nature  has  formed  the  lymphatics  of  this  clafs  of  animals  into  frequent 
plexus,  fomewhat  referobling  net-work. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          83 

the  circumftance  of  their  having  or  wanting  wings,  and 
from  the  number  and  fubftances  of  which  thefe  inftru- 
ments  of  motion  are  compofed.  They  are  diftinguifhed 
from  all  other  animals  by  many  peculiarities  of  form. 
None  of  the  other  claffes  have  more  legs  than  four.  But, 
moil  infects  have  fix  ;  and  many  of  them  have  eight,  ten, 
fourteen,  fixteen,  eighteen,  and  even  a  hundred,  legs. 
Befide  the  number  of  legs,  infects  are  furnifned  with  an- 
tennas, or  feelers.  Thefe  feelers,  by  which  infects  grope 
and  examine  the  fubftances  they  meet  with,  are  compofed 
of  a  great  number  of  articulations,  or  joints.  Linnaeus, 
and  other  naturalifts,  maintain,  that  the  ufes  of  thefe  feel- 
ers are  totally  unknown.  But,  the  flighted  attention  to 
the  manner  in  which  fome  infects  employ  their  feelers, 
will  fatisfy  us  of  at  leaft  one  ufe  they  derive  from  thefe 
organs.  When  a  winglefs  infect  is  placed  at  the  end  of 
a  twig,  or  in  any  fituation  where  it  meets  with  a  vacuity, 
it  moves  the  feelers  backward  and  forward,  elevates,  de» 
preffes,  and  bends  them  from  fide  to  fide,  and  will  not 
advance  farther,  left  it  fhould  fall.  Place  a  ftick,  or  any 
other  fubftance,  within  reach  of  the  feelers  ;  the  animal 
immediately  applies  them  to  this  new  object,  examines 
whether  it  is  fufficient  to  fupport  the  weight  of  its  body, 
and  inftantly  proceeds  in  its  journey.  Though  moft  in- 
fects are  provided  with  eyes,  yet  the  lenfes  of  which  they 
confift  are  fo  fmall  and  convex,  that  they  can  fee  diftinctly 
but  at  fmall  diftances,  and,  of  courfe,  muft  be  very  in- 
competent judges  of  the  vicinity  or  remotenefs  of  objects. 
To  remedy  this  defect,  infects  are  provided  with  feelers, 
which  are  perpetually  in  motion  while  the  animals  walk. 
By  the  fame  inftruments,  they  are  enabled  to  walk  with 
fafety  in  the  dark. 

No  other  animals  but  the  infect  tribes  have  more  than 
two  eyes.  Some  of  them  have  four,  as  the  phalangium  ; 
others,  as  the  fpider  and  fcorpion,  have  eight  eyes.  In  a 
few  infects,  the  eyes  are  fmooth ;  in  all  the  others,  they 
are  hemifpherical,  and  confift  of  many  thoufand  diftinct 
fenfes.  The  eyes  are  abfolutely  immoveable :  But,  this 
defect  is  fupplied  by  the  vait  number  of  lenfes,  which, 
from  the  diverfity  of  their  pofitions,  are  capable  of  view- 
ing 


34  T  H  E    P  H  I  L  O  S  O  P  H  Y 

ing  objects  in  every  direction.  By  the  fmallnefs  and  con- 
vexity of  thefe  lenies,  which  produce  the  fame  effect  as  the 
object  glafs  of  a  microfcope,  infects  are  enabled  to  fee 
bodies  that  are  too  minute  to  be  perceived  by  the  human 
eye. 

Another  peculiarity  deferves  our  notice.  No  animal, 
except  a  numerous  tribe  of  four-winged  infects,  has  more 
than  two  wings. 

With  regard  to  fex,  quadrupeds,  birds,  and  fifties,  are 
diitinguiihed  into  males  and  females.  But,  the  bee  and 
the  ant  furnifh  examples  of  neuters,  which  are  absolutely 
barren :  And  the  earth-worm,  and  feveral  fhelMnfects,  are 
hermaphrodite,  each  individual  ppflefling  the  prolific  pow- 
ers of  both  male  and  female. 

It  is  iikewife  remarkable,  that  all  winged  infects  under- 
go three  metamorphofes,  or  changes  of  form  :  The  egg  is 
discharged  from  the  body  of  the  female  in  the  fame  man- 
ner as  in  other  oviparous  animals.  By  a  wonderful  in- 
fdnct,  thefe  feemingly-ftupid.  creatures  uniformly  depofit 
their  eggs  on  fuch  animal  or  vegetable  fubftances  as  fur- 
niili  proper  food  for  the  worm  or  caterpillar,  that  is  to  be 
hatched  by  the  heat  of  the  fun.  The  worm,  or  caterpillar, 
is  the  firft  flate.  The  bodies  of  caterpillars  are  foft  and 
moid:.  They  have  no  wings,  and  are  totally  deprived  of 
the  faculty  of  generation.  After  continuing  for  fome 
time  in  this  reptile  ftate5  they  are  transformed  into  a  chry- 
falis,  which  is  drier  and  harder  than  the  caterpillar.  The 
chrvfales  of  fome  infects  are  naked,  and  thofe  of  others  are 
covered  with  a  filken  web,  fpun  by  the  animals  before  their 
change  is  completed.  In  this  (late,  many  of  them  lie  mo- 
tionlefs,  and  feemingly  inanimate,  during  the  whole  winter. 
"When  the  fpring  or  fummer  heats  return,  they  burft  from 
their  lad  prifon,  and,  from  vile  reptiles,  are  transformed 
into  beautiful  flies.  In  this  perfect  (late  they  are  exceed- 
ingly active,  fly  about  in  queft  of  their  mates,  and,  after 
propagating  their  fpecies,  the  females  depofit  their  eggs, 
and  the  fame  circle  of  animation  and  change  perpetually 
goes  round.  Hence,  the  ftructure  and  figure  of  the  fame 
individual  animals  are  threefold,  which  renders  the  know- 
ledge of  infects  extremely  complicated,  as  we  mult  be  ac- 
quainted 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  85 

quainted  with  them  in  the  ieveral  forms  they  fucceflively 
aflume. 

There  is  another  peculiarity  in  the  ftructure  of  infers. 
They  arc  deprived  of  bones.  But,  that  defect  is  fupplied, 
in  fome,  by  a  membranous  or  mufcular  fkin,  and,  in 
others,  by  a  cruftaceous  or  horny  covering.  In  this  cir- 
cumftance,  infects  refemble  the  mell-animals,  whofe  bones 
conftitute  the  external  parts  of  their  bodies. 

In  general,  the  bodies  of  infects  are  compofed  of  a  head, 
trunk,  and  abdomen.  The  head  is  commonly  attached 
to  the  trunk  by  a  joint,  or  articulation,  Befide  eyes,  feel- 
ers, and  mouth,  the  heads  of  fome  infects  are  furnimed 
with  palpi  fixed  to  the  mouth ;  and  they  are  either  four 
or  fix  in  number.  Each  of  them  confifts  of  two,  three, 
or  four,  joints,  and  are  often  miflaken  for  the  antennas,  or 
feelers.  Thefe  inftruments  feem  to  ferve  the  animals  in- 
flead  of  hands  ;  for  they  employ  the  palpi  to  bring  the 
food  to  their  mouths,  and  to  keep  it  fteady  while  eating. 
It  is  alferted  by  Linnaeus,  and  other  naturalifts,  that  the 
heads  of  infects  are  deftitute  of  brains,  noftrils,  and  ears. 
The  minutenefs  of  the  animals  under  confideration  may 
have  hitherto  prevented  us  from  diftinguifhing  thefe  or- 
gans. If  they  want  a  brain,  it  is  certain  that  their  fenfe 
of  feeing  is  acute  ;  and  we  know  that  they  are  amply  fup- 
plied  with  nerves,  which  produce  the  fame  effects  as  the 
brain  in  larger  animals.  If  they  are  deprived  of  noftrils, 
the  flighted  attention  muft  convince  us,  that  fome  of  them 
poiTefs  the  fenfe  of  fmelHng  in  a  very  high  degree.  Upon 
any  other  fuppofition,  how  mould  the  different  fpecies  of 
flies,  the  moment  they  efcape  from  the  chryfalis  ftate, 
diftinguifh,  and  directly  approach,  the  different  animal  and 
vegetable  fubftances  Nature  has  deftined  for  their  refpect- 
ive  nourifhment  ?  A  piece  of  meat  is  no  fooner  expofed 
to  the  air  than  it  is  covered  with  flefh-nies,  upon  which 
they  both  feed  and  depofit  their  eggs.  Without  this  fenfe, 
how  fhould  wafps,  and  other  flies,  be  allured  from  confi- 
derable  diftances  into  bottles  encrufted  with  honey,  or 
molafTes  ?  Thefe,  and  fimilar  actions,  cannot  be  effects  of 
light ;  for  the  diftance,  the  minutenefs,  and  frequently  the 

pofition 


86  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

pofition  of  the  food,  render  it  impoffible  for  the  eye  to 
difcover  thofe  fubftances  to  which  they  inftantly  refort. 

With  regard  to  hearing,  it  is  more  difficult  to  determine 
whether  infects  be  endowed  with  this  fenfe.  We  can  judge 
of  it,  not  by  the  knife  of  the  Anatomift,  but  by  the  af- 
fections and  motions  of  the  animals  themfelves.  Several 
trials  I  have  made  on  houfe-flies  incline  me  to  think  that 
thefe  animals  poflefs  a  fenfe  of  a  nature  fimilar,  at  leaft,  to 
that  of  hearing.  At  the  diflance  of  three  or  four  feet,  a 
fmart  ftroke,  even  upon  a  (lone  wall,  alarms  and  puts  them 
to  flight.  But,  this  may  partly  be  attributed  to  the  vi- 
bration in  the  wall,  or  the  concuffion  of  the  air,  produced 
by  the  ftroke.  To  obviate  this  difficulty,  at  the  iame  dift- 
ance  of  between  three  and  four  feet,  I  ftruck  the  air  re- 
peatedly with  a  bookbinder's  folder,  without  giving  the 
fmalleft  alarm  to  the  flies.  But,  when  I  ftruck  the  folder 
againft  the  boards  of  a  book,  which  I  held  in  my  hand, 
and  made  a  fmart  noife,  the  animals  were  inftantly  alarm- 
ed, and  flew  off  at  the  fecond  ftroke.  The  fame  effect  is 
produced  in  a  room  juft  light  enough  to  render  the  ani- 
mals vifible.  Thefe  trials,  which  I  have  often  repeated, 
feem  to  indicate  that  flies,  if  they  are  really  deprived  of 
ears,  are  endowed  with  an  analogous  fenfe,  though  we 
are  ignorant  of  its  fituation*. 

Naturalifts  have  limited  the  fenfes  of  infects  to  thofe 
of  feeing  and  feeling.  But,  the  above  remarks  render  it 
more  than  probable  that  flies  poflefs  likewiie  the  fenfes  of 
fmelling  and  of  hearing  :  Neither  mould  the  fenfe  of  tafte 
be  denied  them  ;  for,  though  they  may  be  aflifted  by 
fmelling  to  difcover  and  felecl:  their  food,  we  cannot  fup- 
pofe  that  Nature  has  denied  them  the  pleafure  which  other 
animals  fo  univerfally  derive  from  eating.  Befides,  an 
agreeable  fenfation,  fimilar  to  that  of  tafte,  muft  accom- 
pany 

*  The  very  learned  and  laborious  Profeflbr  Fabricius  of  Copenhagen,  who  has, 
perhaps,  added  more  to  the  mafs  of  our  knowledge  concerning  infe&s  than  any 
perfon  now  living,  has  been  fo  fortunate  as  to  difcover  the  organs  of  hearing  in 
the  lobjler,  and  in  the  cr&b.  In  thefe  animals,  the  external  orifice  cf  the  organs 
is  placed  between  the  long  and  the  fhort  antenna; ;  whilft  the  cochlea,  &c.  are  fitu- 
uated  in  the  upper  part  of  the  thorax  (as  it  is  called  by  Linnaeus),  near  the  bafe  of 
the  ferrated  projection  at  its  apex,  or  point.  For  a  particular  account  of  this  cu- 
rious difcovery  in  the  hiftory  of  infefts,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  fecond  volume 
of  the  New  Copenhagen  Tranfafticns,  p.  375, 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          87 

pany  an  action  which  removes  the  pain  arifing  from  hun- 
ger. 

The  mouth  of  infects  is  generally  placed  in  the  under 
part  of  the  head  ;  but,  in  fome,  it  is  fituated  in  the  breaft. 
The  jaws,  inilead  of  being  horizontal,  are  often  tranf- 
verfe,  and  furniflied  with  teeth.  The  greater  number  of 
winged  infects  are  provided  with  a  probofcis,  or  trunk,  an 
inftrument  by  which  they  extract  the  juices  from  animal 
or  vegetable  fubftances.  The  probofcis  of  infects  is  a 
machine  of  a  very  complicated  nature.  In  butterflies,  the 
probofcis  is  fituated  precifely  between  the  two  eyes.  Tho' 
fome  of  them  exceed  three  inches  in  length,  they  occupy 
but  a  fmall  fpace.  When  a  butterfly  is  not  in  queft  of 
food,  the  probofcis  is  rolled  up  in  a  fpiral  form,  fimilar 
to  that  of  a  watch-fpring,  each  fucceffive  ring  covering 
the  one  which  precedes.  The  fubftance  of  the  probofcis 
has  fome  refemblance  to  that  of  horn.  It  tapers  from  the 
bafe  to  th^  extremity.  It  is  compofed  of  two  fimilar  and 
equal  parts,  each  of  which  is  concave,  and,  when  joined^ 
form  three  diftinct  tubes.  Reaumur  has  rendered  it  pro- 
bable, that  thefe  tubes  enable  the  animals  to  extract  the 
juices  of  plants,  to  conduct  air  into  their  bodies,  and  to 
convey  the  fenfation  of  fmelling.  Hence,  the  probofcis  of 
infects  is  an  inftrument  which  lerves  them  for  a  mouth,  a 
nofe,  and  a  wind-pipe. 

The  upper  part  of  the  trunk  or  body  of  infects  is  cal- 
led the  thorax,  and  the  under  part  the  abdomen,  or  belly. 
The  abdomen  contains  the  flomach,  and  other  vifcera* 
It  confifts  of  feveral  rings,  or  fegments,  and  is  perforated 
with  fpiracula,  or  tubes,  which  fupply  the  want  of  lungs. 
The  abdomen  is  terminated  by  the  tail,  which,  in  fome 
infe&s,  is  armed  with  a  fling,  a  forceps,  a  brittle,  or  a 
kind  of  a  claw  with  a  moveable  thumb. 

The  legs  are  compofed  of  three  parts,  connected  to 
each  other  by  joints,  and  reprefent  the  thighs,  fhanks, 
ankles,  and  feet  of  larger  animals. 

The  wings  of  infects  are  fo  diverfified  in  number, 
confidence  and  colour,  that  Linnaeus  has  made  them  the 
foundation  of  the  feveral  orders  or  divifions  into  which 
he  divides  this  numerous  clafs  of  animals.  Some  infects 

are 


85  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

are  furnifhed  with  four,  and  others  two  wings,  and  fome 
of  them  are  entirely  deftitute  of  thefe  inftruments  of 
motion. 

The  four-winged  infects  are  arranged  in  five  orders. 
They£r/?  order  Linnsus  diftinguifhes  by  the  name  of  co- 
leoptera,  or  thofe  infects  whofe  upper  pair  of  wings,  con- 
fift  of  a  hard,  cruflaceous,  or  horney  fubilance.  Thefe 
cover  and  defend  the  under  pair,  which  are  of  a  more 
foft  and  flexible  texture.  This  order  comprehends  the 
whole  of  what  is  properly  called  fcarabai^  or  the  beetle 
tribe.  Like  other  winged  infects,  all  the  beetles  live  for 
fome  time  in  the  form  of  caterpillars,  or  grubs. 

As  a  farther  confirmation  of  the  connection  of  man- 
ners with  form  and  ftructure,  it  is  here  worthy  of  remark, 
that  the  fame  animals,  when  in  the  ftate  of  caterpillars, 
live  in  a  different  manner,  and  feed  on  fubftances  of  a 
very  different  kind  from  thofe  they  confume  after  their 
transformation  into  flies.  The  caterpillars  of  the  gar- 
den-beetle, cock-chafer,  &c.  lead  a  folitary  life  under 
ground,  and  confume  the  roots  of  plants.  Thofe  of 
others  feed  upon  putrid  car  cafes,  every  kind  of  flefh, 
dried  fkins,  rotten  wood,  the  dung  of  men,  and  qua- 
drupeds, and  the  fmall  infects  called  pucerons^  or  vine-fret- 
ters.  The  devourers  of  the  puceron  contribute  to  cure 
fuch  plants  as  happen  to  be  infected  with  the  phthiriafis, 
or  loufy  difeafe.  But,  after  their  transformation  into 
flies,  many  of  the  fame  animals,  which  formerly  fed  up- 
on dung  and  putrid  carcafes,  are  nourifhed  with  the 
purefl  nectareous  juices  extracted  from  fruits  and  flow- 
ers. The  creatures  themfelves,  with  regard  to  what  may 
be  termed  individual  animation,  have  fuffered  no  alteration. 
But,  the  fabrick  of  their  bodies,  their  inftruments  of 
motion,  and  the  organs  by  which  they  take  their  food, 
are  materially  changed.  The  change  of  ftructure,  though 
the  animals  retain  their  identity,  produces"  the  greateft 
diverfity  in  their  manners,  their  ceconomy,  and  the  pow- 
ers of  their  bodies.  In  the  caterpillar-ftate,  thefe  ani- 
mals are  extremely  voracious,  and,  in  many  inftances, 
acquire  a  greater  magnitude  than  they  poffefs  after  trans- 
formation :  but  they  are  incapable  of  multiplying  their 

fpecies, 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  89 

fpecies,  and  of  receiving  nourifhment  from  the  fame 
kinds  of  food.  Befides,  many  caterpillars,  previous  to 
their  transformation,  live  even  in  a  different  element. 
The  ephemeron  fly,  when  in  the  caterpillar  ftate,  lives 
no  lefs  than  three  years  in  the  water,  and  extracts  its 
nourifhment  from  earth  and  clay.  After  transformation, 
this  animal  feldom  exifts  longer  than  one  day,  during 
which  the  fpecies  is  propagated,  and  myriads  of  eggs  are 
depofited  on  the  furface  of  the  water.  Thefe  eggs  pro- 
duce worms,  or  caterpillars,  and  the  fame  procefs  goes 
perpetually  round. 

Linnaeus's  fecon d  order  of  infects,  or  hemiptera,  have 
likewife  four  wings.  But,  the  upper  pair,  inftead  of  be- 
ing hard  and  horny,  rather  refemble  fine  vellum.  They 
cover  the  body  horizontally,  and  do  not  meet  in  a  direct 
line,  forming  a  ridge,  or  future,  as  in  the  beetle  tribe. 
The  whole  of  this  order  are  furnifhed  with  a  probofcis  or 
trunk  for  extracting  their  food. 

This  order  comprehends  feveral  genera  or  kinds,  fome 
of  which  we  mail  mention  in  a  curfory  manner. — The 
blatta,  or  cockroach,  is  an  animal  which  avoids  the  light, 
and  is  particularly  fond  of  meal,  bread,  putrid  bodies, 
and  the  roots  of  plants.  It  frequents  bakers  mops  and 
cellars,,  and  flies  the  approach  of  danger  with  great  fwift- 
nefs. — The  head  of  the  mantis ^  or  camel-cricket L,  appears, 
from  its  continual  nodding  motion,  to  be  ilightly  attached 
to  the  thorax.  This  infect  is  regarded  by  the  Africans  as 
a  facred  animal ;  becaufe  it  frequently  affumes  a  praying 
or  fupplicating  poflure,  by  reding  on  its  hind  feet,  and 
elevating  and  folding  the  firft  pair. — -The  gryllus  compre- 
hends a  number  of  fpecies,  fome  of  which  are  called 
grafs  hoppers,  others  locujis,  and  others  crickets.  The  larva 
or  caterpillars  of  the  grylli,  have  a  great  refemblance  to 
the  perfect  infects,  and,  in  general,  live  under  ground. 
Many  of  thefe  infects  feed  upon  the  leaves  of  plants. 
Others,  which  live  in  houfes,  prefer  bread,  and  every 
kind  of  farinaceous  fubftance.  The/tf/g-onz,  or  fire-fly  :  The 
foreheads  of  feveral  of  this  genus,  efpecially  of  thofe  that 
inhabit  China,  and  other  hot  climates,  emit  a  very  lively 
mining  light  during  the  night,  which  often  alarms  thofe 

M  who 


^o  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

who  are  unacquainted  with  the  eaufe  of  the  appearance. 
The  cicada,  frog-hopper,  or  Jlea-locuft :  The  larva,  or  ca- 
terpillars, of  fome  of  this  genus,  difcharge  a  kind  of 
froth  or  faliva  from  the  anus  and  pores  of  the  body,  un- 
der which  they  conceal  therafelves  from  the  rapacity  of 
birds,  and  other  enemies. — The  papa,  or  water -fcorpion, 
frequents  (lagnant  waters.  It  lives  chiefly  on  aquatic  in- 
fects, and  is  exceedingly  voracious. — The  cimex  or  bug  : 
Many  fpecies  of  this  genus  feed  upon  the  juices  of  plants, 
and  others  upon  the  blood  of  animals.  Some  of  them 
are  found  in  waters,  and  others  frequent  houfes,  among 
which,  though  it  wants  wings,  is  the  bed-bug,  a  peftife- 
rous  infect,  wrhich  is  too  well  known,  and  too  generally 
diffufed.  The  bugs  differ  from  other  infects  by  their 
foftnefs  ;  and  mofl  of  them  emit  a  very  foetid  fmell. — 
The  aphis,  puceron,  or  vine-freiter :  Thefe  infects  are  very 
common,  and  are  generally  termed  the  lice  of  the  plants 
which  they  infefl :  The  puceron,  as  remarked  in  the  firft 
chapter,  is  viviparous  in  rummer,  and  oviparous  in  au- 
tumn. Numbers  of  them  are  devoured  by  the  ants,  on 
account,  as  is  fuppofed,  of  a  fweet  liquor  with  which 
their  bodies  are  perpetually  moiftened. — Ghermes  :  The 
larva  or  caterpillars  of  this  infect  have  fix  feet,  and  are 
generally  covered  with  a  hairy  or  woolly  fubftance.  The 
winged  infects  leap  or  fpring  with  great  agility,  and  in- 
fefl a  number  of  different  trees  and  plants  :  The  females, 
by  means  of  a  tube  at  the  termination  of  their  bodies, 
infert  their  eggs  under  the  furface  of  the  leaves,  and  the 
worms,  when  hatched,  give  rife  to  thofe  tubercles,  or 
galls,  with  which  the  leaves  of  the  am,  the  fir,  and  other 
trees,  are  fometimes  almoii  entirely  covered. 

The  third  order  or  tribe  of  four-winged  infects  confifts 
of  three  genera  only.  But,  the  fpecies  comprehended 
under  them  are  exceedingly  numerous.  All  butterflies 
and  moths  belong  to  this  order.  Their  wings  are  covered 
with  a  farinaceous  powder,  or  rather  with  a  kind  of  fcales 
or  feathers,  difpofed  in  regular  rows,  nearly  in  the  fame 
manner  as  tiles  are  laid  upon  the  roofs  of  houfes.  The  ele- 
gance, the  beauty,  the  variety  of  colours  exhibited  in  their 
wings,  are  produced  by  the  difpoiition  and  different  tinc- 
tures 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  9* 

tures  of  thefe  minute  feathers.  The  infects  of  this  or- 
der, on  account  of  their  beauty  and  eafy  prefervation, 
have  always  been  the  favourites  of  collectors,  and  parti- 
cularly of  thofe  of  the  female  fex.  When  the  feathers 
are  rubbed  off,  the  wings  appear  to  be  nothing  more 
than  a  naked,  and  often  a  tranfparent,  membrane.  The 
feelers  of  the  papilio,  or  butterfly,  are  thickeft  at  their 
extremity,  and  often  terminate  in  a  kind  of  capitulum, 
or  head.  Their  wings,  when  fitting,  or  at  reft,  are  erect,, 
their  extremities  join  each  other  above  the  body,  and  the 
animals  fly  about,  in  quefl  of  food  and  of  their  mates, 
during  the  day. — The  moths  are  divided  into  two  genera, 
the  one  calledy£>/6/>2#,  or  hawk  -moth,  and  the  other  phalana^ 
or  moth.  The  feelers  of  the  fphinx  are  thicker  in  the 
middle  than  at  the  extremities,,  and  their  form,  in  fome 
meaufure,  refembles  that  of  a  prifm.  The  wings  are,  in 
general,  deflected,  their  outer  margins  declining  toward 
the  fides.  They  fly  about  early  in  the  morning,  and  af- 
ter fun-fet ;  and,  by  means  of  their  probofcis,  like  the 
butterflies,  they  fuck  the  juices  of  plants. — The  phalana 
or  moth :  The  feelers  of  this  genus  are  fetaceous,  and  ta- 
per from  the  bafe  to  the  point.  When  at  reft,  their  wings 
are  commonly  deflected ;  and  they  fly  during  the  night. 
Previous  to  their  transformation,  the  caterpillars  of  the 
whole  of  this  genus  fpin  webs  for  covering  and  protect- 
ing the  animals  while  in  the  chryfalis  ftate.  From  a  fpe- 
cies  of  this  tribe  mankind  have  derived  one  of  the  great- 
eft  articles  of  luxury  and  of  commerce  which  now  exifts 
in  the  world.  That  feemingly  contemptible,  that  difguft- 
ing  reptile  known  by  the  appellation  of  the  filk-wonn,  in  its 
paffage  from  the  caterpillar  to  the  chryfalis  ftate,  produces 
thofe  fplendid  materials  which  adorn  the  thrones  of  Prin- 
ces, and  add  dignity  and  luftre  to  female  beauty*. 

The  wings  of  the  fourth  order,  diftinguiihed  by  the 
name  of  neuroptera^  are  membranaceous,  naked,  and  fo 
interfperfed  with  delicate  veins,  that  they  have  the  ap- 
pearance of  beautiful  net-work.  Their  tail  has  no  fting ; 
but  that  of  the  male  is  frequently  furnifhed  with  a  kind 
®f  forceps  or  pincers.  To  this  order  belongs  the  libella^ 

or 

*  Sec  Chap.  XI.  concerning  the  transformation  of  Animals.  S.      tLJbelJula. 


92  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

or  dragon-fly,  an  infect  of  very  fplendid  and  variegated 
colours.  It  is  a  large  and  well  known  fly,  and  frequents 
rivers,  lakes,  pools,  and  flagnating  waters,  in  which  the 
females  depofit  their  eggs.  Their  mode  of  generating  is 
fingular.  Different  fpecies  of  them  appear  from  the  be- 
ginning of  furnmer  to  the  middle  of  autumn.  They  ge- 
nerally fly  in  pairs,  and  in  a  flraight  line,  the  male  pur- 
fuing  the  female.  The  organs  of  the  male  aie  fituated  in 
his  breaft :  When  he  overtakes  her,  with  the  forceps  in 
his  tail  he  lays  hold  of  her  by  the  neck,  while  me,  by 
an  inftinctive  impulfe,  makes  the  lower  end  of  her  body 
approach  the  male  organs.  In  this  united  fituation  they 
form  a  kind  of  ring,  have  the  appearance  of  a  double 
animal,  and  fly  along  till  the  purpofe  is  accomplifhed. 
Under  the  fame  order  is  comprehended  the  phryganea,  or 
fprmg-fly  :  The  larvae  or  caterpillars  of  this  genus  live  in 
the  water,  and  are  covered  with  a  filken  tube.  They 
have  a  very  fingular  afpect ;  for,  by  means  of  a  gluten, 
they  attach  to  the  tubes  in  which  they  are  inclofed  fmall 
pieces  of  wood,  fand,  gravel,  leaves  of  plants,  and  not 
unfrequently  live  teftaceous  animals,  all  of  which  they 
drag  along  with  them.  They  are  very  commonly  found 
in  falads  of  the  water-crefs  ;  and,  as  they  are  often  en- 
tirely covered  with  green  leaves,  they  have  the  appearance 
of  animated  plants.  They  are  in  great  requefl  among 
fifherrnen,  by  whom  they  are  diftinguifhed  by  the  name 
of  fane,  or  cod-bait.  The  fly,  or  perfect  infect,  frequents 
running  waters,  in  which  the  females  depofit  their  eggs. 
Thzjifth  order  is  termed  hymenoptera.  In  general,  the 
infects  belonging  to  this  order  have  four  membranaceous 
and  naked  wings.  In  fome  of  the  genera,  however,  the 
neuters,  and,  in  others,  the  males,  or  even  the  females, 
have  no  wings.  Their  tails,  except  in  the  male  fex,  are 
armed  with  a  fling.— The  female  of  the  cynips,  an  infect 
belonging  to  this  order,  inferts  her  eggs  into  the  leaves 
of  the  oak,  and  the  caterpillars  produced  from  them  give 
rife  to  the  galls  employed  in  the  compofition  of  ink. — 
This  order  likewife  includes  the  wafp,  the  bee,  and  the 
ant.  Many  of  the  wafp  kind,  like  the  bees,  live  in  fo- 
ciety,  make  combs  in  which  the  females  depofit  their 

eggs, 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          93 

eggs,  and  feed  their  caterpillars  with  an  inferior  fpecies 
of  honey.  Others  of  them  conftrucl:  a  feparate  neft  for 
each  individual  egg. — The  bee  is  an  infect  too  well  known 
to  require  a  particular  defcription.  The  males  have  no 
fting  ;  but  the  females,  and  the  drones,  or  neuters,  have 
a  very  marp  pointed  (ling  concealed  in  their  abdomen. 
The  female  of  the  honey-bee  is  much  larger  than  the  male, 
or  the  neuter.  Her  feelers  contain  fifteen  articulations. 
Her  abdomen  is  compofed  of  feven  fegments,  and  is  much 
longer  than  her  wings.  The  feelers  of  the  male  contain 
only  eleven  articulations.  The  neuters  are  much  fmaller 
than  the  males  or  females,  and  their  feelers  confift  of  fif- 
teen articulations. — The  fting,  with  which  the  male  and 
female  ants  are  armed,  is  concealed  within  the  abdomen. 
The  males  and  females  of  the  ant  are  furnifhed  with  wings, 
but  the  neuters  are  deprived  of  thefe  inftruments  of  mo- 
tion. The  ants  live  in  focieties  which  are  compofed  of 
males,  females,  and  neuters.  The  males  are  much  fmaller 
than  the  females  and  neuters.  Soon  after  the  males  and 
females  propagate  the  fpecies,  they  all  die.  Some  of  the 
neuters,  however,  furvive  the  winter  ;  but  they  remain 
in  their  habitation  without  movement,  or  difcovering  any 
figns  of  life.  From  thefe  circumftances  in  the  hiftory  of 
ants,  it  is  apparent,  that  the  induftry  and  fagacity  fo  long 
and  fo  univerfally  afcribed-to  thefe  little  animals  could  be 
of  no  ufe  either  to  themfelves  or  their  progeny.  The  fe- 
male, after  depofiting  her  eggs,  takes  no  farther  care  of 
her  offspring.  But,  what  is  fmgular,  the  important  of- 
fice of  feeding  the  larva ,  or  caterpillars,  after  the  eggs 
are  hatched,  is  left  entirely  to  the  neuters.  This  affecti- 
onate and  affiduous  attention  of  the  neuters  to  a  progeny 
neither  begot  nor  brought  forth  by  them,  is  fo  aftoniftn 
ing,  fo  contrary  to  the  general  oeconorny  of  Nature,  that 
no  reafoning  or  theory  can  account  for  a  fact  fo  uncom- 
mon, till  farther  difcoveries  mail  be  made  in  the  hiftory 
of  thefe  furprifmg  animals.  What  is  ftill  more  fingular, 
after  the  caterpillars  are  transformed  into  the  chryfalis 
(late,  the  neuters  are  inceffantly  and  anxioufly  employed 
in  preferving  the  chryfales  from  humidity  when  the  v/ea- 
ther  is  wet,  and  in  expofmg  them  to  the  warmth  of  the 

fun 


94  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

fun  when  it  is  fair.  Thefe  chryfales  are  large*  than  the 
animals  themfelves,  and  yet  they  carry  them  off  with  eafe 
and  rapidity. 

The  fixth  order  of  infects  is  termed  diptera,  or  two- 
winged  infects.  The  different  fpecies  of  this  order,  be- 
fide  wings,  are  furnimed  with  what  is  called  a  halter  or 
a  poifer,  which  is  fituated  under  each  wing,  and  is  ter- 
minated by  a  capitulum*  or  knob.  This  order  comprehends 
ten  genera,  and  a  multitude  of  fpecies.  The  caterpillars 
of  the  oeftrus,  or  gad-fly,  lie  concealed  in  the  fkins  of 
cattle,  where  they  are  nourimed  during  the  whole  winter. 
The  perfect  infects  are  frequent  wherever  horfes,  cows  or 
fheep  are  grazing.  Some  of  them  depofit  their  eggs  in 
the  (kins  of  cows  or  oxen ;  others  depofit  them  in  the 
intefUnes  of  horfes,  to  which  they  get  accefs  by  the  anus  ; 
and  others  in  the  noftrils  of  fheep.  In  thefe  habitations, 
the  caterpillars  refide  till  they  are  full  grown,  when  they 
throw  themfelves  down  to  the  earth,  and  generally  pafs 
the  chryfalis  (late  under  the  firfl  ftone  they  meet  with. 
— The  mufca,  or  common  fly  :  The  mouth  of  this  infect 
confifts  of  a  foft,  rlefhy  probofcis,  with  two  lateral  lips. 
The  caterpillars  of  fome  of  this  genus  devour  the  puce- 
rons ;  others  confume  all  kinds  of  putrid  flefh ;  others 
are  found  in  cheefe ;  others  in  the  excrements  of  differ- 
ent animals ;  and  many  of  them  live  in  the  water,  and 
prefer  that  which  is  moil  corrupted  and  muddy. — The 
mouth  of  the  culex,  or  gnat^  confifts  of  a  flexible  flieath, 
inclofing  four  bridles,  or  pointed  flings.  The  feelers  of 
the  female  gnat  are  plain  like  a  thread ;  but  thofe  of  the 
male  are  beautifully  feathered.  The  worms,  or  cater~ 
pillars,  of  this  genus  are  commonly  found  in  ftagnant 
waters.  The  gnats  generally  frequent  woods  and  marfhy 
places.  The  females,  in  particular,  are  very  troublefome, 
and  fling  feverely. — The  feet  of  the  hippobofca,  or  horfe- 
fly,  are  armed  with  a  number  of  nails,  or  crotchets.  In 
fome  fpecies,  the  wings  crofs  each  other ;  ,in  others,  they 
are  open.  The  horfe-fiies  frequent  woods  and  marfhy 
grounds,  and  are  extremely  incommodious  to  birds  and 
quadrupeds,  whofe  blood  is  the  only  food  of  thefe  infects. 

The  feventh  order  of  infects  Linnaeus  denominates  ap- 


OF    NATURAL    HFSTORY.  95 

becaufe  neither  males  nor  females  are  furniflied  with 
wings.  This  order  comprehends  thirteen  genera,  and  a 
great  number  of  fpecies,  many  of  which  are  very  offen- 
five  and  noxious  to  the  human  fpecies.  The  pediculus,  or 
loufe,  has  fix  legs,  two  prominent  eyes,  and  its  mouth 
contains  a  fling  or  fucker,  by  which  it  extracts  blood 
and  other  juices  from  the  bodies  of  animals.  Though 
almofl  every  different  animal  is  infefled  with  a  peculiar 
fpecies  of  lice,  the  fpecifk  chara&ers  of  very  few  of 
them  have  hitherto  been  afcertained.  Lice  are  of  vari- 
ous fqrms.  Some  of  them  are  oval,  others  oblong,  and 
others  long  and  ilender.  They  are  oviparous  animals, 
and  their  eggs  are  large  in  proportion  to  the  fize  of  their 
bodies.  Before  they  arrive  at  maturity,  they  change  their 
Ikin  feveral  times.  They  are  fuppofed  to  be  hermaphro- 
dites. This  circumflance,  if  true,  may  partly  account 
for  their  prodigious  multiplication.  Swammerdam,  who 
diffecled  a  great  number,  affures  us,  that  he  never  found 
one  without  an  ovary,  nor  even  difcovered  the  organs 
peculiar  to  the  male  fex.  If  this  ftruclure  be  univerfal, 
the  loufe  is  an  hermaphrodite  of  a  very  peculiar  kind ; 
becaufe  it  muft  be  capable  of  fecundating  itfelf.  Seve- 
ral fpecies  of  worms  are  hermaphrodites ;  but,  inftead  of 
fecundating  themfelves,  they  are  obliged  to  impregnate 
each  other. — The  pulex,  or  flea^  has  likewife  fix  legs,  the 
articulations  of  which  are  fo  exceedingly  elaftic,  that  the 
animal  is  enabled,  by  their  means,  to  fpring  to  furprifing 
diflances.  It  has  two  fine  eyes,  and  its  body  is  covered 
with  cruflaceous  fcales.  The  flea  is  the  only  infect  be- 
longing to  this  order  which  undergoes  a  transformation 
fimilar  to  that  of  the  former  orders :  All  the  other  wing- 
lefs  infects  are  produced  in  a  perfect  flate  either  by  the 
mother,  or  from  eggs.  The  caterpillars  of  the  flea  have 
forked  tails,  and  are  very  fmall  and  lively.  They  may 
be  nourifhed  in  boxes,  and  fed  with  flies,  which  they 
greedily  devo^.  Before  changing  into  the  chryfalis  flate, 
they  live  fourteen  or  fifteen  days  in  the  form  of  caterpil- 
lars.— Aranea^  or  fpider :  This  genus  comprehends  a 
great  many  fpecies.  The  fpider  has  eight  feet,  and  an 
equal  number  of  immoveable  eyes.  The  chief  prey  of 

the 


96  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

the  fpider  is  flies,  animals  whofe  motions  are  extremely 
quick  and  defultory.  To  enable  the  fpider  to  obferve 
their  movements  in  every  direction,  me  is  furnimed  with 
eight  eyes,  the  pofition  of  which  merits  attention :  Two 
of  them  are  placed  on  the  top  of  the  head,  other  two  on 
the  front,  and  two  on  each  fide.  The  mouth  is  armed 
with  two  crotchets,  by  which  it  feizes  and  kills  its  prey. 
Round  the  anus  there  are  feveral  mufcular  inftruments, 
fhaped  like  nipples  or  teats.  Each  of  thefe  contain  about 
a  thoufand  tubes  or  outlets  for  threads  fo  extremely  mi- 
nute, that  many  hundreds  of  them  mufl  be  united  before 
they  form  one  of  thofe  vifible  ropes  of  which  the  fpider's 
web  is  compofed.  The  figure  of  the  web  varies  accord- 
ing to  the  fpecies,  or  the  fituation  the  animal  choofes  for 
its  abode.  After  the  web  is  completed,  fome  fpecies  re- 
fide  in  the  center,  and  others  occupy  the  extremity  of 
their  habitations,  where  they  lie  in  ambufh,  with  afto- 
nifhing  patience,  till  an  ill-fated  fly  is  accidentally  entan- 
gled. The  fpider,  from  the  vibration  of  the  threads, 
perceives  his  prey,  rulhes  forth  from  his  cell,  inftantly 
feizes  it  with  his  fangs,  devours  its  vitals,  and  afterwards 
rejects  the  exhaufted  carcafe.  Spiders  prey  upon  all 
weaker  infects,  and  even  upon  their  own  fpecies. — The 
fcorpion:  This  venomous  infect  is  a  native  of  warmer 
climates  than  thofe  of  the  north  of  Europe.  It  has  eight 
feet,  and  two  claws,  the  lad  of  which  are  fituated  on 
the  fore  part  of  the  head.  Like  the  fpider,  the  fcorpion 
has  eight  eyes,  three  of  which  are  placed  on  each  fide  of 
the  bread,  and  the  other  two  on  the  back.  The  tail  is 
long,  jointed,  and  terminates  in  a  iharp  crooked  fling. 
The  venom  of  the  fcorpion  is  more  deftru&ive  than  that 
of  any  other  infect ;  and  is  fometimes  fatal  in  Africa, 
and  other  hot  regions. 

The  loft  divifion  of  infects  is  termed  vermes^  or  worms, 
by  Linnaeus.  This  clafs  comprehends  not  only  all  the  in- 
fects commonly  called  worms,  but  all  the  *eftaceous  ani- 
mals, and  the  zoophites,  or  plant-animals.  The  ftruct- 
ure  of  feveral  genera  belonging  to  this  clafs  is  extremely 
fmgular.  After  giving  a  few  examples,  we  ihali  haften 
to  the  conclufion  of  the  prefent  fubjeft. 

The 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          97 

The  body  of  the  gordius,  or  hair-worm,  is  long,  (haped 
like  a  thread  or  hair,  fmooth,  and  round.  A  fpecies  of 
the  hair-worm  is  very  common  in  our  frefh  waters,  and 
is  perfe&ly  harmlefs.  In  Scotland,  it  is  a  vulgar  and 
foolilh  notion,  that  the  hair  of  a  horfe's  tail,  when  thrown 
into  the  water,  is  converted  into  this  worm*.  Though 
inofFenfive  in  this  country,  the  hair-worm  of  Africa,  and 
of  both  the  Indies,  is  extremely  noxious.  It  is  of  a  pale 
yellowifh  colour,  and  is  frequently  met  with  among  the 
grafs,  especially  when  covered  with  dew.  It  often  infi- 
nuates  itlelf  into  the  naked  feet  or  limbs  of  children  and 
unwary  perfons,  where  it  produces  an  inflammation, 
which  is  fometimes  fatal.  It  may  be  extracted  by  tying 
a  thread  round  its  head,  and  then  pulling  it  gently  out 
of  its  abode.  But,  this  operation  requires  great  caution  ; 
for,  if  the  animal  is  broken,  the  part  which  remains  does 
not  die,  but,  in  a  fhort  time,  regains  what  it  had  loft, 
and  becomes  equally  entire  and  troublefome  as  if  it  had 
received  no  injury. — The  lumbricus,  or  earth-worm  :  The 
body  of  this  worm  is  cylindrical,  confifts  of  many  rings, 
and  the  middle  is  encompaffed  with  an  elevated  belt.  It 
is  likewife  furnifhed  with  fharp  prickles,  which  the  animal 
can  erect  or  deprefs  at  pleafure.  Through  certain  perfo- 
rations in  the  ikin,  it  occafionally  emits  a  flimy  fluid, 
which  lubricates  its  body,  and  facilitates  its  paflage  into 
the  foil.  The  inteftines  of  this  worm  are  always  filled 
with  a  fine  earth,  which  feems  to  conflitute  its  only  nou- 
rimment.  Earth-worms,  like  fnails,  are  hermaphrodite. 
The  parts  of  generation  are  placed  near  the  neck,  and 
they  mutually  impregnate  each  other.  This  operation 
Is  performed  on  the  furface  of  the  ground ;  and,  while 
thus  employed,  they  will  allow  themfelves  to  be  crufhed 
to  pieces  rather  than  part*  The  females  depofit  their  eggs 
in  the  earth,  where  they  are  hatched.  Thefe  worms, 
like  the  polypus,  when  cut  through  the  middle,  repro- 
duce, and  eacfy  portion  becomes  a  diflinct  individual. 
According  to  the  different  periods  of  their  growth,  their 
colour  varies ;  but,  in  general,  it  is  a  crnfky  red. 

The  fepia^  or  cuttle-fjh^  though  comparatively  a  large 
N  animal, 

*  A  fimilar  notion  very  generally  prevails  in  thefe  United-States. 


98  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

animal,  fome  of  them  being  two   feet  long,  is  ranked 
by  Linnseus  under  the    clafs    of  worms.     The   flrudure 
of  the  cuttle-fifh  is  remarkable.     Its  body  is  cylindrical, 
and,  in  fome  of  the  fpecies,  is  entirely  covered  with  a 
fleihy  fheath ;  in  others,  the  fheath  reaches  only  to   the 
middle  of  the    body.     The  fepia  has    eight    tentacula, 
or  arms,  befide  two  feelers,  as    they  are  called,  which 
are  much  longer  than  the    arms.     Both  the   feelers   and 
arms   are  furnifhed  with  ftrong  cups,  or  fuckers,    fliap- 
ed  like  the   cup   of  an  acorn,  by    means  of  which  the 
animal  feizes  its  prey,  and  firmly  attaches  itfelf  to  rocks, 
or  to  the  bottom  of  the  fea.     It  has  two  large  and  pro- 
minent eyes.     What  is  itill  more  fingular,  it  is  furnifhed 
with  a  hard,  ilrong,  horny  beak,  precifely  fimilar,  both 
in  texture  and  fubitance,  to  the  bill  of  a  parrot.     With 
this  bill,  the  cuttle-fifh  is  enabled  to  break  the  fhells   of 
limpets^  and  other  {hell-animals,  upon  which  it  chiefly 
feeds.     In  the  belly,  there  is  an  aperture  through  which 
the  animal,  when  purfued  by  its  enemies,  emits  a  fluid 
as  black  as  ink,  tinges  the  water,  and  often  efcapes  by 
this  ingenious  ilratagem.    The  ancient  Romans  frequent- 
ly ufed  this  black  fluid  as  ink  in  writing.     The  males  and 
females  copulate  by  a  mutual  embrace.     The  female  de- 
pofits  her  eggs   upon   fea-plants   in   parcels    refembling 
bunches  of  grapes.     At  the  inftant  they  drop  from  the 
mother,  the  eggs  are  white  ;  but  the  male  immediately 
coats  them  over  with  a  black  liquor.     The  male  perpetu- 
ally accompanies  the  female.     When  the  female  is  attack- 
ed, he  braves  every  danger,  and  often  refcues  her  at  the 
hazard  of  his  own  life.     The  bone  of  the  cuttle-fifh  is 
very  light,  and,  when  pulverized,  it  is  employed  by  dif- 
ferent artifts-  in  making  moulds. 

The  medufa  is  an  animal  which  has  the  appearance  of 
a  lifelefs  mafs  of  jelly  floating  on  thefurface  of  the  ocean. 
Its  body  is  roundiflu  flattened  underneath,  and  the  mouth 
is  fituated  in  the  center  of  the  under  part.  There  are  ma- 
ny fpecies  of  this  feemingly  moft  imperfect,  deieneelefs, 
and  abjecl  part  of  animated  nature.  They  are,  however, 
lurniihed  with  tentacula,  by  which  they  feize  infe£ts 
and  the  fmail  fry  fifties,  convey  them  to  their  mouths,  and 

devour 


OF    NATURAL^HISTORY.  99 

devour  them.  Although  the  fport  of  the  waves,  and  the 
prey  of  every  flfh  that  approaches  them,  they  are  grega- 
rious animals,  and,  particularly  in  warm  climates,  fome- 
times  collect  in  fuch  numbers  as  to  have  the  appearance 
of  whitifh  rocks  under  the  furface  of  the  ocean. 


WE  have  thus  given  a  fhort  fketch  of  the  itruthire  of 
animals,  from  man  down  to  the  infect  tribes,  and  fhali 
now  conclude  with  a  few  remarks. 

In  all  the  variety  of  animated  beings  whofe  general 
ftruclure  has  been  exhibited,  the  intelligent  reader  will 
eafily  perceive,  that  the  bodily  forms  of  the  different 
kinds  are  exactly  adapted  to  the  rank  they  hold  in  the 
creation,  and  that  their  ceconomy  and  manners  are  ftriclly 
and  invariably  connected  with  their  ftructure  and  organ?. 
If  a  new  animal  appears,  and  if  its  figure  be  uncommon, 
it  may  with  fafety  be  pronounced,  that  its  manners  are 
equally  uncommon.  Change  the  external  or  internal 
form  of  an  animal ;  diminiih  the  number  of  flomachs 
in  the  ruminating  tribes  ;  or  give  to  the  horfe  a  parrot's 
bill  ;  and  the  fpecies  will  be  annihilated. 

The  comparative  power,  or  ftrength,  of  animals  de- 
pends not  on  Itructure  alone.  Mental  faculties  and  doci- 
lity, or  the  capacity  of  receiving  inftru&ion,  feem  to  be 
the  greateft  fources  of  animal  power.  Hence  man's  unli- 
mited empire  over  all  other  creatures.  The  inventions  of 
language,  of  arms,  of  writing,  printing,  and  engraving, 
have  been  the  chief  means  of  extending  his  influence, 
and  of  his  acquiring  the  dominion  of  the  earth.  By  thefe 
arts,  men  tranfmit  the  improvements,  the  inventions,  and 
the  acquifitions,  of  one  age  to  another.  By  thefe  arts, 
the  difpofitions  of  men  are  foftened,  their  manners  be- 
come more  and  more  civilized,  humanity  is  gradually  ex- 
tended and  refined,  and  the  grofler  animofities  yield  to 
external  politenefs  and  decorum  at  lead,  if  the  feelings 
themfelves  be  not  blunted.  How  far  this  progrefs  of  fci-' 
ence,  and  the  peaceful  arts  of  life,  by  the  accumulation  of 
ages,  may  proceed,  it  is  impoilible  to  determine;  But, 

the 


TOO  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

the  time,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  is  not  very  remote,  \vhen  the 
fiercer  contentions  of  nations  will  ceafe,  when  felfifhnefs 
and  venality,  which  at  prefent  feem  to  be  infeparable  from 
commercial  ftates,  will  give  way  to  generofity  of  temper, 
and  uprightnefs  of  conduct. 


CHAP.       IIL 

Of  the  Refpiration  of  Animals — Air  necejjary  to  the  exiftencs 
of  all  animated  beings — The  various  modifications  of  the  or- 
gans employed  by  Nature  for  the  tranfmiffion  of  Air  into  ani- 
mal bodies. 


IT  is  foreign  to  the  defign  of  this  chapter  to  mention 
the  different  kinds  of  air  ;  to  unfold  its  compofition ; 
or  to  recapitulate  the  innumerable  benefits  derived  from 
it  in  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms,  in  the  arts  of 
life,  and  in  the  texture  and  cohefion  of  inanimate  bodies. 
For  our  purpofe,  it  is  fufficient  to  obferve,  that  by  air  is 
meant  that  common  elaftic  fluid  which  pervades  this  globe, 
and  which  by  its  weight,  its  prefiure  in  all  directions,  and 
its  compreilibility,  insinuates  itfelf  into  every  vacuity,  and 
is  necerlary  to  the  exigence  of  every  animal  and  vegeta- 
ble being. 

In  man,  and  the  larger  land-animals,  air  is  taken  into 
the  body  by  the  lungs.  When  an  animal  infpires,  the 
external  air  paffes  through  the  apertures  of  the  mouth 
and  nofe  into  the  trachea,  or  wind-pipe,  and  thence  di- 
reclly  into  the  lungs.  This  air,  by  infmuating  itfelf  into 
the  numerous  cells  of  the  lungs,  neceflfarily  inflates  them, 
and,  when  retained  for  a  fecond  or  two,  produces  an  un- 
eafy  fenfation.  To  remove  this  difagfeeable  feeling,  the 
animal  inftinclrvely,  by  the  exertion  of  particular  mufcles 
deftined  by  Nature  for  that  purpofe,  forces  out  the  air, 
and  thus  removes  the  offending  caufe.  The  lungs,  after 

the 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         icx 

the  air  is  thrown  out,  inftead  of  being  inflated,  eollapfe  ; 
and,  if  a  frefh  fupply  is  not  foon  taken  in,  a  fimilar  un- 
eafy  fenfation  is  felt,  which  obliges  the  animal  again  to 
infpire.  This  alternate  reception  and  rejection  of  air  goes 
on  during  the  life  of  the  animal,  and  is  diftinguifhed  by 
the  general  name  of  refpiration.  But,  when  treating  more 
accurately  of  the  fubject,  the  aft  of  taking  air  into  the 
lungs  is  called  infpiration^  and  the  act  of  throwing  it  out 
is  termed  expiration. 

That  the  refpiration  of  air  is  indifpenfible  to  the  exif- 
tence  of  land-animals,  has  been  proved  by  innumerable 
experiments  made  with  the  air-pump.  Mice,  rats,  rab- 
bits, cats,  dogs,  &c.  when  placed  in  an  exhaufted  re- 
ceiver, inflantly  become  reftlefs,  and  difcover  fymptoms 
of  pain.  Their  bodies  fwell,  and  their  life  is  foon  ex- 
tinguifhed.  Indeed,  our  own  feelings  are  fufficient  to 
afcertain  this  fact.  No  perfon  can  remain  long  either  in 
a  ftate  of  infpiration  or  expiration  without  being  fuffb- 
cated. 

But,  the  alternate  motions  of  infpiration  and  expirati- 
on, joined  to  the  circulation  of  the  blood  through  the 
lungs,  may  be  confidered  as  the  more  mechanical  effects 
of  refpiration.  Though  thefe  operations  are  abfolutely 
neceflary  to  the  exiftence  of  animals,  yet  the  air  itfelf  has 
been  fuppofed  to  impart  fome  vital  principle  to  the  blood, 
without  which  life  could  not  be  continued. 

The  ingenious  Doctor  Crawford,  in  his  treatife  on  Ani- 
mal Heat,  has  rendered  it  probable,  that  the  refpiration 
of  air  is  the  caufe  of  that  vital  warmth  without  which  no 
animal  can  exift.  After  mentioning  a  well  known  fact, 
that  all  bodies,  whether  animate  or  inanimate,  contain  a 
certain  quantity  of  fire  as  a  principle  in  their  compofition, 
the  Doctor  remarks,  that  this  quantity,  in  different  bo- 
dies, varies  according  to  their  nature  or  texture  ;  that  this 
fire,  when  in  a  latent  or  quiefcent  ftate,  is  termed  abfolutc 
heat ;  that,  when  fubftances  of  different  textures  have  a 
given  quantity  of  heat  thrown  into  them^  their  tempera- 
ture will  be  difcover ed  to  be  different  by  the  thermome- 
ter ;  for  the  fame  quantity  of  heat  which  raifes  one  body 

to 


102  THEPHILOSOPHY 

to 'a  certain  degree,  will  raife  another  to  a  greater  or  a 
lefs  ;  and  this  different  difpofition  of  bodies  is  called  their 
capacity  of  containing  abiblute  heat. 

Doctor  Crawford  next  endeavours  to  prove  by  experi- 
ments, that,  when  phlogifton  is  added  to  any  body,  its 
capacity  of  containing  abfolute  heat  is  diminifhed  ;  and 
that,  when  phlogifton  is  abftracted  from  the  fame  body, 
its  capacity  of  receiving  abfolute  heat  is  augmented. 
Hence  he  infers,  that  heat  and  phlogifton  feem  to  con- 
ftitute  two  oppofite  principles  in  nature.  By  the  action 
of  heat  upon  bodies,  the  force  of  their  attraction  to  phlo- 
gifton is  diminifhed ;  and,  by  the  action  of  phlogifton,  a 
part  of  the  abfolute  heat,  which  exifts  in  every  fubftance 
as  an  element,  is  expelled.  6  Hence,'  fays  the  Doctor, 
6  animal  heat  feems  to  depend  upon  a  procefs  fimilar  to  a 

*  chemical  elective  attraction.     The  air  is  received  into 
f  the  lungs,  containing  a  great  quantity  of  abfolute  heat. 
c  The  blood  is  returned  from  the  extremities,  highly  im- 

5  pregnated  with  phlogifton.     The  attraction  of  the  air 
c  to  the  phlogifton  is  greater  than  that  of  the  blood.   This 

6  principle  will  therefore  leave  the  blood  to  combine  with 

*  the  air.     By  the  addition  of  the  phlogifton,  the  air  is 
6  obliged  to  depofit  a  part  of  its  abfolute  heat ;  and,  as  the 

5  capacity  of  the  blood  is,  at  the  fame  moment,  increafed 

*  by  the  Separation  of  the  phlogifton,  it  will  inftantly  unite 

6  with  that  portion  of  heat  which  had  been  detached  from 
c  the  air. 

6  We  learn  from  Doctor  Prieftley's  experiments  with 

c  refpect  to  refpiration,  that  arterial  blood  has  a  ftrong  at- 

6  traction  to  phlogifton  :  It  will,  confequently,  during  the 

c  circulation,  imbibe  this  principle  from  thofe  parts  which 

retain  it  with  the  leaft  force,  or  from  the  putrefcent  parts 

of  the  fyftem :  And  hence  the  venous   blood,  when  it 

returns  to  the  lungs,  is  found  to  be  highly  impregnated 

v/ith  phlogifton.     By  this  impregnation,  its  capacity  for 

containing  heat  is  diminifhed.    In  proportion,  therefore, 

as  the  blood,  which   had  been  dephlogifticated  by  the 

procefs   of  refpiration,  becomes  again  combined  with 

phlogifton.,  in  the  courfe  of  the  circulation,  it  will  gra- 

'  dually 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         103 

*  dually  give  out  that  heat  which  it  had  received  in  the 
4  lungs,  and  diffufe  it  over  the  whole  fyftem  V 

The  Doctor  afterwards  proceeds  to  aflign  a  reafon  why 
the  heat  of  animals  is  always  equal.  *  As  animals/  fays 
he,  '  are  continually  abforbing  heat  from  the  air,  if  there 
6  were  not  a  quantity  of  heat  carried  off,  equal  to  that 

*  which  is  abforbed,  there  would  be  an  accumulation  of 
4  it  in  the  animal  body.     The  evaporation  from  the  fur- 

*  face,  and  the  cooling  power  of  the  air,  are  the  great 
caufes  which  prevent  this  accumulation.     And  thefe  are 
alternately  increafed  and  diminimed,  in  fuch  a  manner 
as  to  produce  an  equal  effect.     When  the  cooling  power 
of  the  air  is  diminimed  by  the  fummer  heats,  the  eva- 
poration from  the  furface  is  increafed ;  and  when,  on 
the  contrary,  the  cooling  power  of  the  air  is  increafed 
by  the  winter  colds,  the  evaporation  from  the  furface  is 

6  proportionally  diminimed  f .' 

This  theory,  though  not  fupported  by  mathematical  evi- 
dence, is  not  only  ingenious,  but  feems  to  make  a  nearer 
approach  to  truth  than  any  that  has  hitherto  been  in- 
vented J. 

Refpiration,  befide  being  the  probable  caufe  of  the 
equable  continuation  of  heat  in  animals,  produces  many 
other  falutary  and  ufeful  effects  in  the  ceconomy  of  ani- 
mated bodies.  There  is  a  mod  intimate  connection  be- 
tween the  act  of  refpiring  and  the  circulation  of  the  blood. 
When  refpiration  is,  for  a  fliort  time,  interrupted  by  the 
fumes  of  burning  fulphur,  by  mephitic  air,  or  by  remain- 
ing forne  minutes  under  water,  the  action  of  the  heart 
ceafes.  But,  in  many  cafes  of  this  kind,  the  motion  of 
the  heart  may,  and  frequently  has  been  renewed,  by  blow- 
ing air  into  the  lungs,  and  by  the  application  of  ftimulat- 
ing  fubflances  to  different  organs  of  the  body.  In  perfons 
feemingly  dead  from  a  temporary  fufpenfion  of  refpiration, 
if  the  lungs  can  be  excited  to  act,  the  motion  of  the  heart 

inftantly 

*  Crawford  on  Animal  Heat,  pag.  73.     S.  t  Ibid.  pag.  84.     S. 

t  If  the  reader  is  defirous  of  feeing  fome  pertinent  remarks  on  Doclor  Craw- 
ford's Theory  of  Animal  Hear,  he  may  confult  Doftor  Gardiner's  Obfervations 
en  the  Animal  Oeconomy,  and  on  the  Caufes  and  Cure  of  Difeafes,  an  ingenious  and 
ufeful  performance,  lately  publiftied,  and  which  merits  much  more  attention  frore 
Bhilofophers  and  Phyficians  than  it  has  hitherto  received.  S, 


104  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

inftantly  commences,  the  circulation  of  the  blood  is  re- 
ftored,  and  life  is  recovered.  This  intimate  connection 
between  refpiration  and  the  action  of  the  heart,  is  one  of 
thofe  aftoniming  facts  in  the  animal  ceconomy,  the  caufes 
of  which  will  perhaps  forever  elude  the  keeneil  refearches 
of  the  human  intellect.  All  we  know  is,  that  certain  func- 
tions are  indifpenfible  to  the  exiflence  of  animals,  and 
that,  if  any  of  them  are  fufpended  for  a  few  feconds,  life 
is  extinguifhed ;  namely,  the  action  of  the  hrain  and  nerves, 
the  circulation  of  the  blood,  refpiration,  and  a  probable 
refult  of  refpiration,  animal  heat.  Thefe  functions,  from 
their  importance  in  the  fyftem,  have  received  the  appella- 
tion of  vital  functions.  There  are  other  functions  of  the 
body,  called  natural,  which  are  no  lefs  neceflary  to  life, 
as  the  digeflion  and  concoction  of  aliment,  the  various 
fecretions  and  excretions.  But,  they  are  diftinguifhed 
from  the  vital  functions,  becaufe  fome  of  them  may  be 
fufpended  for  a  confiderable  time  without  materially  in- 
juring the  body. 

Refpiration  commences  inftantly  after  birth,  and  is 
inftinctively  continued  during  life.  In  the  foetus  ftate, 
as  formerly  mentioned*,  refpiration  is  unneceflary,  be- 
caufe the  circulation  of  the  general  mafs  of  blood  is  car- 
ried on  through  a  different  channel.  In  the  acl:  of  infpi- 
ration,  we  are  confcious  of  making  a  certain  effort ;  but, 
in  the  act  of  expiration,  we  fcarcely  perceive  any  exertion 
whatever. 

Befide  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  and  the  continua- 
tion of  the  vital  warmth,  refpiration  gives  rife  to  many 
other  important  functions  in  the  animal  ceconomy.  All 
animals  who  refpire,  befide  a  watery  vapor,  exhale  great 
quantities  of  mephitic  or  corrupted  effluvia,  which,  if 
retained  in  the  lungs,  or  breathed  by  other  animals,  would 
foon  prove  fatal.  The  mufcles  of  refpiration,  of  which 
we  have  the  command,  are  employed  in  many  other  ope- 
rations of  the  bod^,  befide  the  mere  act  of  breathing  air. 
All  animals  furnifhed  with  lungs  exprefs  their  wants,  their 
affections  and  averfions,  their  pleasures  and  pains,  either 
by  words,  or  by  founds  peculiar  to  each  fpecies.  Thefe 

different 

''*  See  above,  page  67.     S 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.        10$ 

different  founds  are  produced  by  ftraitening  or  widening 
the  glottis  and  wind-pipe,  or,  in  general,  the  paffage 
through  which  the  air  paries  in  refpiration.  The  inferior 
animals  are  by  this  means  enabled  to  expreis  thenlfelves, 
though  not  by  articulate  founds,  in  fuch  a  manner  as  to 
be  perfectly  intelligible  to  every  individual  of  a  fpecies. 
On  man  alone,  Nature  has  beftowed  the  faculty  of  fpeak* 
ing,  or  of  exprefling  his  various  feelings  and  ideas,  by  a 
regular,  exterifive,  and  eftablifhed  combination  of  articu- 
late founds.  To  have  extended  this  faculty  to  the  brute 
creation,  would  not,  it  is  probable,  have  been  of  any  ufe 
to  them  ;  for,  though  fome  animals  can  be  taught  to  arti- 
culate, yet,  from  a  defect  in  their  intellect*  none  of  them 
feem  to  have  any  idea  of  the  proper  meaning  of  the  words 
they  utter.  Speech  is  performed  by  a  very  various  and 
complicated  machinery.  In  fpeaking,  the  tongue,  the 
lips,  the  jaws,  the  whole  palate,  the  nofe,  the  throat,  to- 
gether with  the  mufcles,  bones,  &c.  of  which  thefe  organs 
are  compofed,  are  all  employed.  This  combination  of 
organs  we  are  taught  to  ufe  when  fo  young  that  we  are 
hardly  confcious  of  the  laborious  tafk,  and  far  lefs  of  the 
manner  by  which  we  pronounce  different  letters  and  words. 
The  mode  of  pronouncing  letters  and  words,  however, 
may  be  learned  by  attentively  obferving  the  different  or- 
gans employed  by  the  fpeaker.  By  this  means  we  are  en- 
abled to  correct  various  defects  of  fpeech,  and  even  to 
teach  the  dumb  to  fpeak ;  for  dumbnefs  is  feldom  the  ef- 
fect of  imperfection  in  the  organs  of  fpeech,  but  generally 
arifes  from  a  want  of  hearing  ;  and  it  is  impoffible  for 
deaf  men  to  imitate  founds  which  they  never  heard,  ex- 
cept they  be  taught  to  ufe  their  organs  by  vifion  and  by 
touching. 

When  about  to  laugh,  we  make  a  very  full  infpiration, 
which  is  fucceeded  by  frequent,  interrupted  and  fonorous 
expirations.  When  the  titiilation  is  great,  whether  it 
arifes  from  the  mind  or  body,  thefe  convulfive  expira- 
tions fometimes  interrupt  the  breathing  to  fuch  a  degree 
as  to  endanger  fuffocation.  Moderate  laughing^  on  the 
contrary,  promotes  health  :  By  agitating  the  whole  body, 
it  quickens  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  gives  an  inex- 

O  preffible 


io6  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

preflible  chearfulnefs  to  the  countenance,  and  banilhes 
every  kind  of  anxiety  from  the  mind. 

In  weeping,  we  employ  nearly  the  fame  organs  as  in 
laughing.  It  commences  with  a  deep  infpiration,  which 
is  fucceeded  by  fhort,  broken,  fonorous,  and  difagreea- 
ble  expirations.  The  countenance  has  a  difmal  afpect, 
and  tears  are  poured  out.  Weeping  originates  from  grief, 
or  other  painful  fenfations  either  of  body  or  mind  :  When 
full  vent  is  given  to  tears,  grief  is  greatly  alleviated. 
Both  laughing  and  weeping  have  been  reckoned  peculiar 
td  man.  But  this  notion  feems  not  to  be  well  founded. 
Though  the  other  animals  exprefs  not  their  pleafures  or 
pains  in  the  fame  manner  as  we  do,  yet  all  of  them  ex- 
hibit their  pleafant  or  painful  feelings  by  fymptoms  or 
cries,  which  are  perfectly  underftood  by  the  individuals 
of  each  fpecies,  and,  in  many  inftances,  by  man.  A  dog, 
when  hurt,  complains  in  the  bittereft  terms ;  and,  when 
he  is  afraid,  or  perhaps  melancholy,  he  exprefles  the  fitu- 
ation  of  his  mind  by  the  mod  deplorable  howlings.  A 
bird,  when  fick,  ceafes  to  fmg,  droops  the  wing,  abftains 
from  food,  affumes  a  lurid  afpect,  utters  melancholy, 
weak  cries,  and  exhibits  every  mark  of  deprefled  fpirits. 
By  this  means,  animals  intimate  the  afliftance  they  re- 
quire, or  foften  thofe  who  maltreat  them.  Their  plain- 
tive cries  are  fometimes  fo  affecting  as  to  difann  their 
enemies,  or  procure  the  aid  of  their  equals.  On  the 
other  hand,  when  animals  are  pleafed  or  carefled,  they 
difcover,  by  their  countenance,  by  their  voice,  by  their 
movements,  unequivocal  fymptoms  of  chearfulnefs  and 
alacrity  of  mind.  Thus  the  expreflions  of  pleafure  and 
pain  by  brute  animals,  though  not  uttered  in  the  pre- 
cife  manner  with  thofe  of  the  human  fpecies,  are  per- 
fectly analogous,  and  anfwer  the  fame  intentions  of  Na- 
ture. 

By  refpiration,  and  the  inftruments  employed  in  the 
performance  of  it,  the  larger  animals  are  not  only  brought 
forth,  but  are  enabled  to  extract  milk  from  the  brealts 
of  the  mother.  By  refpiration,  odours  are  conveyed  to 
the  nofe  ;  coughing,  fneezing,  yawning,  fighing,  fmging, 

vomiting, 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         107 

vomiting,  and  many  other  functions  in  the  animal  ceco 
nomy,  are  at  lead  partly  accomplished. 

After  this  general  view  of  the  refpiration  of  man  and 
of  quadrupeds,  we  proceed,  according  to  the  method 
laid  down,  to  give  fome  account  of  the  fame  function  in 
the  other  clafles  of  animals. 

With  regard  to  BIRDS,  though,  like  other  land-animals, 
they  refpire  by  means  of  lungs,  Nature  has  enabled  them 
to  tranfmit  air  to  almoft  every  part  of  their  bodies.  The 
lungs  of  birds  are  fo  firmly  attached  to  the  diaphragm, 
the  ribs,  the  fides,  and  the  vertebras,  that  they  can  admit 
of  very  little  dilatation  or  contraction  *.  Inflead  of  being 
impervious,  the  fubftance  of  the  lungs,  as  well  as  of  the 
diaphragm,  to  which  they  adhere,  is  perforated  with 
many  holes  or  paffages  for  the  tranfmifTion  of  air  to  the 
other  parts  of  the  body  j*.  To  each  of  thefe  perforations 
a  diftincl  membranous  bag  is  joined.  Thefe  bags  are 
extremely  thin  and  tranfparent.  They  extend  through 
the  whole  of  the  abdomen,  are  attached  to  the  back  and 
fides  of  that  cavity,  and  each  of  them  receives  air  from 
their  refpedive  openings  into  the  lungs.  The  cells  in 
birds  which  receive  air  from  the  lungs  are  found  not 
only  in  the  foft  parts,  but  in  the  bones.  That  ingenious 
and  accurate  anatomifl,  Mr.  John  Hunter  of  London, 
remarks,  that  the  bones  of  birds  which  receive  air  are 
of  two  kinds :  *  Some,  as  the  fternum,  ribs,  and  verte- 
'  bras,  have  their  internal  fubftance  divided  into  innu- 
c  merabie  cells,  whiift  others,  as  the  os  humeri  and  the 
'  os  femoris,  are  hollowed  out  into  one  large  canal,  with 
6  fometimes  a  few  bony  columns  running  acrofs  at  the 
4  extremities.  Bones  of  this  kind  may  be  diftinguifhed 
*  from  thofe  that  do  not  receive  air  by  certain  marks : 

i.  By 

*  Thefe  numerous  adhefions  of  the  lungs  of  birds,  and  the  fmall  dilatation  of 
the  thorax  in  the  a&  of  infpiration,  are  fuppofed,  by  an  ingenious  and  learned  mo- 
dern Phyfiologift  and  Naturalift,  to  be  the  reafon  why,  in  this  extenfive  clafs  of 
animals,  the  biain  is  not  fubjefted  to  that  alternate  rifing  and  falling  which  is  ob- 
ferved  in  the  whole  clafs  of  mammalia,  during  infpiration  and  expiration.  See 
the  beautiful  paper  of  Mr.  Blumeribach,  entitled  Specimen  Phyfiologict  comparattt 
inter  ammantia  cahdi Sanguinis  Vivipara  et  Ovipara,  publilhed  in  the  ninth  volume 
of  the  Comtnentationes  Societatis  Regicc  Sdentiarum  Gottivgcnjis,  for  the  years  1787, 
and  1788. 

t  This  fa£l  feems  to  have  been  firft  mentioned  by  the  celebrated  Doctor  Har- 
vey. See  Harvey  de  General.  Animal.  Exercit,  3.  S. 


io8  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

c  i.  By  their  lefs  fpecific  gravity:   2.  By  being  lefs  vaf- 
'  cular,  and  therefore   whiter :    3.   By  their  containing 

*  little  or  no  oil,  and   confequently   being  more  eafily 
c  cleaned ;  and,  when   cleaned,  appearing  much  whiter 

*  than  common  bones  ;  4.  By  having  no  marrow,  or  even 
'  any  bloody  pulpy  fubftance  in  their  cells :   5.  By  not 
'  being,  in  general,  fo  hard  and  firm  as  other  bones ; 

*  and,  6.  By  the  paiTage  that  allows  the  air  to  enter  the 
6  bones,  which  can  eafily  be  perceived.     In  the  recent 
c  bone  we  may  readily  difcover  holes,  or  openings,  not 
6  filled  with  any  fuch  foft  fubftance  as  blood -veflels,  or 

*  nerves ;  and  it  happens  that  feveral  of  thefe  holes  are 
'  placed  together,  near  that  end   of  the  bone  which  is 

*  next  to  the  trunk  of  the  bird  ;  and  are  diftinguifhable 

*  by  haying  their  external  edges  rounded  off;  which  is 
6  not  the  cafe  with  the  holes  through  which  either  nerves 
?  or  blood-vefTels  pafs  into  the  fubftance  of  the  bone  *.' 

Mr  Hunter  afterwards  informs  us,  that  the  lungs,  at 
the  anterior  part,  open  into  a  number  of  membranous 
cells,  which  lie  upon  the  fides  of  the  pericardium,  and 
communicate  with  thofe  of  the  fternum.  At  the  fuperior 
part,  the  lungs  open  into  the  large  cells  of  a  loofe  net- 
work, through  which  the  wind-pipe,  gullet,  and  large 
veflels,  pafs  as  they  proceed  to  and  from  the  heart.  Thefe 
cells,  when  cliftended  with  air,  augment  confiderably  the 
part  where  they  are  iituated  ;  and  this  augmentation,  or 
fwelling,  is  generally  a  mark  either  of  anger  or  of  love. 
This  tumefaction  is  remarkable  in  the  turkey-cock,  in 
the  pouting-pigeon,  and  in  the  breaft  of  a  goofe  when 
me  cackles.  Thefe  cells  communicate  with  others  in  the 
axilla,  under  t'Jie  large  pecloral  mufcle.  In  moft  birds, 
the  axillary  cells  communicate  with  the  cavity  of  the  o$ 
humeri'by  final!' openings  in  the  hollow  furface  near  the 
head  of  that  bone.  In  fome  birds,  thefe  cells  are  con- 
tinued down  the  wing,  and  communicate  with  the  ulna 
and  radius  ;  in  others,  they  extend  even  to  the  pinions. 
The  poilerior  edges  of  the  lungs  open  into  the  cells  of 
the  vertebrae,  into  thofe  of  the  ribs,  the  canal  of  the 
fpinal  marrow,  the  facrum,  and  other  bones  of  the  pel- 
vis 5 

*  Hunter's  Obfervations  on  certain  parts  of  the  Animal  Occonomy,  pag.  79.  S. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         109 

vis  ;  from  thefe  parts  the  air  finds  a  paifage  into  the  thigh- 
bone. c  Thus,'  continues  our  learned  and  indefatigable 
author,  c  the  cells  of  the  abdomen,  thofe  furrounding  the 
•*  pericardium,  thofe  fituated  at  the  lower  and  forepart  of 
c  the  neck,  and  in  the  axilla,  thofe  in  the  cellular  mem- 
6  brane  under  the  pectoral  mufcles,  as  well  as  in  that 
?  which  unites  the  {kin  to  the  body,  all  communicate 

*  with  the  lungs,  and  are  capable  of  being  filled  with  air  ; 
?  arid  again  from   thefe  the   cells   of  the    flernum,  ribs, 

*  vertebrae  of  the  back  and  loins,  bones  of  the    pelvis, 
c  the  humeri,  the  ulna  and  radius,  with  the  pinions  and 

*  thigh-bones,  can  in  many  birds  be  furnifhed  with  air*/ 

Thefe  facts,  which  our  author  candidly  acknowledges 
had  been  formerly  obferved,  led  him,  in  the  year  1758, 
to  make  experiments  on  the  breathing  of  birds,  in  order 
to  prove  the  free  communication  between  the  lungs  and 
the  feveral  parts  of  the  body  mentioned  above. 

6  Firil,'  fays  he,  c  I  made  an  opening  into  the  belly  of  a 
'  cock,  and  having  introduced  a  filver  canula,  tied  up 
c  the  trachea ;  I  found  that  the  animal  breathed  by  this 
c  opening,  and  might  have  lived  ;  but,  by  an  inflamma- 

*  tion  in  the  bowels  coming  on,  adhefions  were  produced, 
c  and  the  communication  cutoff. 

c  I  next  cut  the  wing  through  the  os  humeri,  in  ano- 
c  ther  fowl,  and  tying  up  the  trachea,  as  in  the  cock, 
c  found  that  the  air  palled  to  and  from  the  lungs  by  the 
'  canal  in  this  bone.  The  fame  experiment  was  made 

*  with  the  os  femoris  of  a  young  hawk,  and  was  attended 
'  with  nearly  the  like  fuccefs  f .' 

The  extreme  fingularity  of  this  almoft-univerfal  diffu- 
fion  of  air  through  the  bodies  of  birds,  naturally  excited 
a  defire  to  difcover  what  might  be  the  intention  of  Na- 
ture in  producing  a  ftruclure  fo  extraordinary.  Mr  Hunter 
firft  imagined  that  it  might  be  intended  to  affifl  the  ad 
of  flying  |,  by  increafmg  the  volume  and  ftrength  of  the 
animal,  without  adding  to  its  weight,  which  mufl  be  di- 

minifhed  ; 

*  Hunter's  Obfervations  on  certain  parts  of  the  Animal  Oeconomy,  p.  8 1 .    S. 

t  Ibid.  p.  82.     S. 

I  This  was  likewife  the  opinion  of  the  late  learned  Profeflbr  Camper.  See  what 
he  has  faid  on  this  curious  lubjeft,  in  the  fourth  volume  of  the  Hedendaegze  Idter 
oeffeningcn,  n.  2.  for  the  year  1771. 


no  THE    PHIL  OS  OPH  Y 

minifhed  ;  becaufe  the  fpecific  gravity  of  the  external  air 
is  iuperior  to  that  of  the  internal  air,  which  is  rendered 
more  rare  by  the  heat  of  the  animal's  body.  This  opinion 
was  corroborated,  by  confidering  that  the  feathers  of 
birds,  and  particularly  thofe  of  the  wings,  contain  a  great 
quantity  of  air.  With  his  ufual  ingenuoufnefs,  however, 
Mr.  Hunter,  in  oppofition  to  his  firft  conjecture,  informs 
us,  that  the  oftrich,  which  does  not  fly,  was  amply  pro- 
vided with  air-cells  difperfed  through  its  body  *;  that  the 
wood-cock,  and  fome  other  flying  birds,  were  not  fo 
liberally  fupplied  with  thefe  cells  as  the  oftrich ;  and  that 
the  bat  had  no  fuch  peculiarity  of  ftru&ure.  With  re- 
gard to  the  oftrich,  though  it  is  not  intended  to  fly,  it  runs 
with  amazing  rapidity,  and,  confequently,  requires  fimi- 
lar  refources  of  air. 

He  next  conjectured,  from  analogy,  that  the  air-cells 
in  birds  ought  to  be  confidered  as  an  appendage  to  the 
lungs  ;  becaufe  in  the  make,  viper,  and  feveral  other 
amphibious  animals,  the  lungs  are  continued,  in  the  form 
of  two  bags,  through  the  whole  abdomen,  the  upper 
part  of  which  can  only  perform  the  office  of  refpiration 
with  any  degree  of  effecl ;  becaufe  the  lower  part  has 
comparatively  few  air-veiiels.  c  The  air,'  fays  Mr.  Hun- 
ter, c  muft  pafs  through  this  upper  part  before  it  gets  to 
'  the  lower  in  infpiration,  and  muft  alfo  repafs  in  expira- 
6  tion ;  fo  that  the  refpiratory  furface  has  more  air  appii- 

*  ed  to  it  than  what  the  lungs  of  themfelves  could  contain. 
c  There  is,  in  facl,  a  great  fimilarity  between  birds  and 
c  that  ciafs  of  animals  called  amphibious ;  and,  although  a 

*  bird  and  a  fnake  are  not  the  fame  in  the  conftru&ion  of  the 
'  refpiratory  organs,  yet  the  circumftance  of  the  air  paf- 
'  Bfig  in  both  beyond  the  lungs,  into  the  cavity   of  the 
c  abdomen,  naturally  leads  us  to  fuppofe,  that  a  ftru&ure 
c  fo  fimilar  is  defigned  in  each  to  anfwer  a  fimilar  pur- 
c  pofe.     This   analogy  is   ftiil  farther  fupported  by   the 
4  lungs  in  both  confming  of  large  cells.     Now,  in  am- 
c  phibious  anin.-als,  the  ufe  of  fuch  a  conformation  of  lungs 

'is 

*  Profeflbr  Camper  informs  us,  that  in  the  oftrich,  and  in  the  cafowary,  which 
is  a  fpecics  of  the  oPrrich,  the  air  does  not  penetrate  into  the  ofla  humcri  j  but 
that  it  is  prefent  in  all  the  other  bones. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         iu 

<  is  evident  -7  for  it  is  in  confequence  of  this  ftru&ure  that 

*  they   require  to  breathe   lefs  frequently   than  others. 

*  Even  confidering  the  matter  in  this  light,  it  may  ftill, 

*  in  birds,  have  fome  connexion  with  flying,  as  that  mo- 
4  tion  may  eafily  be  imagined  to  render  frequency  of  re- 
4  fpiration   inconvenient,  and   a   refervoir    of   air    may 
6  therefore  become  fingularly  ufeful.     Although  we  are 
4  not  to  confider  this  ftrucliure  in  birds  to  be  an  extenfion 
6  of  limgs,  yet  I  can  eafily  conceive  this  accumulation  of 
6  air  to  be  of  great  ufe  in  refpiration  ;  for,  as  we  obferved 
4  in  the  viper,  that  the  air,  in  its  palTage  to  and  from 

*  thefe  cells,  mud  certainly  have  a  confiderable  effect  upon 
4  the  blood   in  the  lungs,  by  allowing  a  much  greater 
6  quantity  of  air  to  pafs  in  a  given   time,  than   if  there 
4  was  no  fuch  conflru&ion  of  parts.     And  this  opinion 

*  will  not  appear  to  be  ill  founded,  if  we  confider,  that, 
4  both  in  the  bird  arid  the  viper,  the  furface  of  the  lungs 
6  is  fmall  in  comparifon  to  what  it  is  in  many  other  ani- 
4  mals  which  have  not  this  extenfion  of  cavity. — We  muft 
4  not,  however,  give  up  the  idea  of  fuch  ftructure  being 
4  of  ufe  in  flying  ;  for  I  believe  we  may  fet  it  down  as  a 
4  general  rule,  that,  in  the  birds  of  longeft  and  higheft 
4  flight,  as  eagles,  this  extenfion,  or  diffufion  of  air,  is 
c  carried  farther  than  in  the  others  ;  and  this  opinion  is 
4  flrengthened,  by  comparing  this  flructure  with  the  re- 
4  fpiratory  organs  in  the  flying  infects,  which    are  com- 
4  pofed  of  cells  diffufed  through   the  whole  body ;  and 
4  thefe  are  extended  even  into  the  head  and  down  the 
4  extremities,  while  there  is  no  fuch  ftructure  in  thofe 
4  that  do  not  fly,  as  the  fpider,'  &c. 

Though  Mr.  Hunter's  modefty  has  not  permitted  him 
to  draw  his  conclufion  in  a  pofitive  manner,  he  feems  to 
have  proved  decidedly,  that  one  ufe  of  the  general  diffu- 
fion  of  air  through  the  bodies  of  birds  is, to  prevent  their 
refpiration  from  being  flopped  or  interrupted  by  the  rapi- 
dity of  their  motion  through  a  refilling  medium.  The 
refiflance  of  the  air  increafes  in  proportion  to  the  celerity 
of  the  motion.  Were  it  poffible  for  man  to  move  with 
a  fwiftnefs  equal  to  that  of  a  fwallow,  the  refiflance  of  the 
air,  as  he  is  not  provided  with  internal  refervoirs  fimilar 

to 


jia  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

to  thofe  of  birds,  would  foon  fuffbcate  him.  Neither  does 
the  difficulty  he  mentions,  with  regard  to  the  ftruclure  of 
the  oftrich,  feem  to  contradict  his  theory  ;  for  though, 
as  formerly  remarked,  the  oftrich  does  not  fly,  he  runs 
with  aftoniftiing  rapidity. 

The  refpiration  of  air  is  not  only  neceffary  to  the  exift- 
ence  of  land-animals,  but  to  that  of  FISHES  of  every  de- 
nomination. Ccetaceous  fifties,  or  thofe  of  the  whale- 
kind,  refpire,  like  man  and  quadrupeds,  by  means  of  lungs  ; 
and,  of  courfe,  they  are  obliged,  at  certain  intervals,  to 
come  to  the  furface,  in  order  to  throw  out  the  former  air, 
and  to  take  in  a  frefh  fupply. 

Inftead  of  lungs,  the  other  fpecies  of  fifties  are  furnifh- 
ed  with  gills,  through  which  they  refpire  both  water  and 
air ;  for  air  is  univerfally  diffufed  or  mixed  with  every 
portion  of  water.  When  a  free  communication  with  the 
external  air  is  prevented  by  ice,  or  by  artifice,  fifties  im- 
mediately difcover  fymptoms  of  uneafinefs,  and  foon  pe- 
rifli.  JElian  informs  us,  that,  in  winter,  when  the  river 
Ifter  was  frozen,  the  filhers  dug  holes  in  the  ice  ;  that 
great  numbers  of  fifties  reforted  to  thefe  holes  ;  and  that 
their  eagernefs  was  fo  great,  that  they  allowed  themfelves 
to  be  feized  by  the  hands  of  the  fifliermen.  Rondeletius 
made  many  experiments  on  this  fubjed.  If,  fays  he,  fifties 
are  put  into  a  narrow-mouthed  verTel  filled  with  water, 
and  a  communication  with  the  air  be  preferved,  the  ani- 
mals live,  and  fwim  about,  not  for  days  and  months  only, 
but  for  feveral  years.  If  the  mouth  of  the  veflfel,  how- 
ever, be  fo  clofely  Unit,  either  with  the  hand,  or  any  other 
covering,  that  the  paflage  of  the  air  is  excluded,  the  fifties 
fuddenly  die.  Immediately  after  the  mouth  of  the  verTel 
is  clofed,  the  creatures  rufh  tumultuouily,  one  above  an- 
other, to  the  top,  contending  which  of  them  fliall  foonefl 
receive  the  benefit  of  the  air  *.  In  the  fhallow  parts  of 
rivers,  when  frozen,  many  fifties  are  found  dead.  But, 
when  parts  of  a  river  are  deep  or  rapid,  the  fifties  fly  from 
the  ice,  and  by  this  means  avoid  deftruclion. 

Thefe,  and  fimilar  experiments,  have  been  repeated  by 
Mr.  Willoughby,  and  many  other  modern  authors j  and 

they 

*  Rondeletius,  lib.  4.  cap.  9.     S. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         113 

they  have  uniformly  been  attended  with  the  fame  event. 
A  carp,  in  a  large  veflel  full  of  water,  was  placed  in  the 
receiver  of  an  air-pump.  In  proportion  as  the  air  was  ex- 
haufted  by  working  the  pump,  the  furface  of  the  animal's 
body  was  covered  with  a  number  of  bubbles.  The  carp 
foon  breathed  quicker,  and  with  more  difficulty :  A  little 
after,  it  rofe  to  the  furface  in  queft  of  air.  The  bubbles 
on  its  furface  next  difappeared ;  the  belly,'  which  before 
was  greatly  fwollen,  fuddenly  collapfed  ;  and  the  animal 
funk  to  the  bottom,  and  expired  in  convulfions. 

Thus  the  refpiration  of  air  is  as  neceifary  to  the  exif- 
tence  of  fifties  as  to  that  of  -land-animals ;  for  none  of 
them  can  live  long  when  deprived  of  this  vivifying  ele- 
ment. Fifties,  indeed,  feem  to  require  a  fmaller  quantity  of 
air  than  animals  who  have  a  conftant  and  free  communi- 
cation with  the  atmofphere.  The  bodies  and  fluids  of 
fifties  are  colder  than  thofe  of  land-animals ;  and,  of 
courfe,  if  Doctor  Crawford's  theory  be  well  founded, 
fifties  require  lefs  air  to  fupport  the  proportionally  final! 
quantity  of  heat  they  pofTefs. 

An  analogy  between  fifties  and  birds  deferves  here  to 
be  noticed.  Both  of  thefe  claries  of  animals  are  rapid  in 
their  motions ;  and  both  of  them,  befide  refpiring  by 
lungs,  or  gills,  have  receptacles  of  air  within  their  bodies. 
Fifties  tranfmit  fmall  quantities  of  air  through  their  gills ; 
but  Nature  has  provided  moft  of  them  with  air-bags  or 
bladders,  which  may  anfwer  the  double  purpofe  of  enab- 
ling them  to  afcend  and  defcend  in  the  water,  and  to  com- 
municate a  vital  principle  to  their  whole  fyflem. 

We  fhall  conclude  this  fubjecl  with  an  account  of  the 
modes  employed  by  Nature  for  tranfrniuing  air  into  the 
bodies  of  INSECTS. 

In  this  feemingly  contemptible,  and  often  noxious  clafs 
of  animals,  Nature  has  exhibited  a  wonderful  diverfity  of 
form,  of  manners,  of  inftinch,  of  deformity,  and  of 
beauty.  But,  however  infignificant  thefe  creatures  may 
appear  to  inattentive  obfervers,  Nature  has  been  equally 
provident  in  the  formation  of  their  bodies,  and  in  the 
means  of  preferving  the  different  individuals,  according 
to  their  kinds,  as  in  the  larger  animiils,  which  have  the 

P  appearance 


ii4  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

appearance  of  more  importance  in  the  fcale  of  being. 
To  infects  fhe  has  denied  lungs  fimilar  to  thofe  of  men, 
quadrupeds,  birds,  and  fifties  ;  but  as  the  tranfmiflion  of 
air  into  their  bodies  was  neceffary  to  continue  the  princi- 
ple of  life,  fhe  has  furnifhed  them  with  peculiar  inftru- 
ments  and  apparatus  for  accornplifhing  this  indifpenfible 
purpofe. 

Air  is  conveyed  into  the  bodies  of  infects  by  inftru- 
ments  called  trachea ,  or  Jtigmata.  The  tracheae,  or  wind- 
pipes, are,  in  many  infects,  long  tubes  protruding  ex- 
ternally from  different  parts  of  the  body.  In  fome,  they 
proceed  from  the  pofterioi-  part,  and  have  the  appearance 
of  one,  two,  or  three  tails ;  in  others  they  arife  from 
the  back  or  fides.  Thejtigmata  are  fmali  holes,  generally 
•of  a  diiferent  colour  from  the  reft  of  the  body,  and  ru-n 
along  the  fides  of  many  caterpillars  in  regular  and  beau- 
tifully-dotted lines.  That  thefe  tracheae  and  ftigmata  are 
deilined  for  the  tranfmiflion  of  air,  has  been  proved  by 
repeated  experiments ;  for,  when  flopped  up  by  the  ap- 
plication of  oil,  or  other  unctuous  fubftances,  the  ani- 
mals foon  lofe  their  exiflence. 

In  contemplating  the  parts  of  animals,  when  the  ufes 
of  thefe  parts  are  not  apparent,  we  are  apt  to  deceive 
•ourfeives  by  raihly  fuppofing  them  to  an-fwer  purpofes  for 
which  they  were  never  intended  by  Nature.  Imprefled 
with  this  idea,  M.  de  Reaumur  was  not  fatisfied  with  the 
notion  of  Godart  and  others,  that  the  long  tails  of  cer- 
tain worms  were  intended  to  keep  them  fleady  in  their 
motions,  and  to  prevent  them  from  rolling.  Reaumur 
obferTed,  that  thefe  worms  or  grubs  could  lengthen  or 
ihorten  their  tails  at  pleafure,  but  that  they  were  always 
longer  than  the  animal's  body.  Becaufe  thefe  tails  have 
fome  reiemblance  to  that  of  a  rat,  he  diilinguifhes  the 
animals  by  the  name  of  rat-tailed  worms.  Thefe  worms 
are  aquatic,  and  never  appear  on  dry  ground  till  they  are 
about  to  undergo  their  lirft  transformation.  Reaumur, 
in  order  to  obferve  their  ceconomy  'more  clofely,  collected 
a  number  of  rat-tailed  worms,  and  put  them  into  a  glafs 
velTel  filled  two  inches  high  with  water.  At  firft  they 
were  confiderably  agitated,  each  ieemingly  fearching  for 

a  proper 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         115 

a  proper  place  of  repofe.  Some  of  them  fwam  acrofs, 
others  attached  themfelves  to  the  fides,  and  others  reded 
at  the  bottom  of  the  veffel.  In  a  quarter  of  an  hour  they 
were  almoft  entirely  tranquil,  and  Reaumur  foon  dike- 
vered  the  real  ufe  of  their  long  tails.  Upon  examining 
the  veifel,  he  found  that  each  of  the  animals,  in  what- 
ever fituation  they  were  placed,  extended  its  tail  exactly 
to  the  furface ;  that,  like  other  aquatic  infeds,  the  ref- 
piration  of  air  was  neceflary  to  their  exigence  ;  and  that 
the  tail,  which  is  tubular,  and  open  at  the  extremity, 
was  the  organ  by  which  this  operation  was  performed. 
In  this  experiment,  the  diflance  from  the  bottom  to  the 
furface  was  two  inches,  and,  of  courfe,  the  tails  were 
of  an  equal  length.  To  difcover  how  far  the  animals 
could  extend  their  tails,  this  mofl  ingenious  and  indefa- 
tigable philofopher  gradually  augmented  the  height  of 
the  water,  and  the  tails  uniformly  rofe  to  the  furface  till 
it  was  between  five  and  fix  inches  high.  When  the  water 
was  raifed  higher,  the  animals  immediately  quitted  their 
flation  at  the  bottom,  and  either  mounted  higher  in  the 
water,  or  fixed  upon  the  fides  of  the  vetfel,  in  fituations 
which  rendered  it  convenient  for  them  to  reach  the  fur- 
face  with  the  points  of  their  tails.  Thefe  tails  confift  of 
two  tubes,  both  of  which  are  capable  of  extenfion  and 
contraction.  The  firft  tube  is  always  vifible ;  but  the 
fecond,  which  is  the  proper  organ  of  refpiration,  is  ex- 
ferted  only  when  the  water  is  raifed  to  a  certain  height. 
Through  this  tube  the  air  is  conveyed  into  two  large 
tracheae  or  wind-pipes  within  the  body  of  the  animal, 
and  maintains  the  principle  of  life.  When  the  tails  are 
below  the  furface,  they  occafionally  emit  fmall  bubbles 
of  air,  which  are  vifible  to  the  naked  eye ;  and  immedi- 
ately repair  to  the  furface  for  frefh  fupplies.  Thefe  rat- 
tailed  worms  pafs  the  firft  and  longeft  part  of  their  lives 
under  water ;  when  near  the  time  of  their  transformation, 
they  leave  the  water,  go  under  the  ground,  and  are  there 
transformed  into  chryfalids ;  and,  laftiy,  from  this  ftate 
they  are  transformed  into  flies,  and  fpend  the  remainder 
of  their  exiftence  in  the  air. 

Another   fpecies   of  aquatic  worms  merit  attention. 

They 


n6  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

They  frequent  marines,  ditches,  and  ftagnating  waters. 
Their  general  colour  is  a  greenifh  brown.  Their  bodies 
confift  of  eleven  rings  ;  and  their  fkin  is  not  cruftaceous, 
but  rather  refembles  parchment.  Though  thefe  animals, 
before  their  transformation  into  flies,  live  in  water,  air 
is  neceiTary  to  fupport  their  principle  of  life ;  and  the 
apparatus  with  which  Nature  has  furnimed  them  for  that 
important  purpofe  deferves  our  notice.  The  laft  ring,  or 
termination  of  their  bodies,  is  open,  and  ferves  as  a  con- 
dition of  air.  From  this  lad  ring  proceed  a  number  of 
hairs,  which,  when  examined  by  the  microlcopc,  are 
found  to  be  real  feathers  with  regular  vanes.  In  parti- 
cular fituations,  they  bend  the  laft  ring  in  fuch  a  manner 
as  to  reach  the  furface  of  the  water  or  mud  in  which  they 
are  placed.  Thefe  feathers  prevent  the  water  from  en- 
tering into  the  tube,  or  organ  of  refpiration  ;  and,  when 
the  animal  raifes  the  termination  of  its  body  to  the  fur- 
face,  in  order  to  receive  air,  it  erecls  and  fpreads  the 
feathers,  and  by  this  means  expofes  the  end  of  the  tube 
to  the  atmofphere.  When  cautiouily  cut  open,  two  large 
veiiels,  or  tracheae,  appear  on  each  fide,  and  occupy  al- 
moft  one  half  of  the  body.  Both  of  thefe  wind-pipes 
terminate  in  the  open  tube,  or  laft  ring.  Though  thefe 
worms  are  furnimed  with  organs  of  refpiration,  and  ac- 
tually refpire  air,  yet  M.  de  Reaumur  difcovered  that 
fome  of  them  could  live  more  than  twenty-four  hours 
without  refpiration. 

So  anxious  is  Nature  to  provide  animals,  in  every  (late 
of  their  exiftence,  with  air,  that,  after  the  transformation 
of  many  infects  into  chryfalids,  me  creates  inftruments  for 
that  purpofe,  which  did  not  exift  previous  to  their  trans- 
formation. The  rat-tailed  worms,  formerly  mentioned, 
foon  after  they  are  transformed  into  chryfalids,  inftead  of 
a  foft  pliable  fkin,  are  covered  with  a  hard  cruftaceous 
fubftance,  feemingly  impervious  to  the  air;  and  the  tail, 
which  was  the  wind-pipe  of  the  animal  in  its  firll  ftate, 
gradually  vanifhes.  In  a  few  hours,  however,  four  hol- 
low horns  fhoot  out,  two  from  the  fore,  and  two  from 
the  hind,  part  of  what  was  the  head  of  the  animal.  Thefe 

horns, 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         117 

horns,  which  are  hard  and  tubular,  M.  de  Reaumur  dif- 
covered  to  be  real  wind-pipes,  deftined  for  the  introduc- 
tion of  air  into  the  chryfalis,  a  ftate  in  which  the  animals 
have  the  appearance  of  being  almoft  totally  dead,  and,  of 
courfe,  fhould  feem  to  have  little  ufe  for  refpiration.  He 
likevvife  difcovered  that  thefe  horns,  which  had  pierced 
the  hard  exterior  covering,  terminated  in  as  many  tra- 
cheae in  the  body  of  the  animal.  This  fact  affords  a 
ftrong  example  of  the  neceflity  of  air  for  fuftaining  the 
principle  of  life,  even  in  its  lowed  condition.  After  thefe 
animals  pafs  from  the  chryfalis  ftate  to  that  of  flies,  they 
are  deprived  both  of  their  tails  and  horns,  But  Nature, 
in  this  laft  flage  of  their  exiftence,  has  not  left  them  with- 
out proper  refources  for  the  introduction  of  air  into  their 
bodies.  Inftead  of  protuberant  tracheae  in  the  form  of 
tails  or  horns,  they  now,  like  other  flies,  receive  air  by 
means  of  ftigmata,  or  holes,  varioufly  difpofed  over  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  body. 

The  nymph  of  the  libella,  or  dragon-fly,  refpires  water, 
in  the  fame  manner  as  men  and  quadrupeds  refpire  air. 
We  receive  and  throw  out  the  air  by  the  mouth  and  nof- 
trils.  But  the  nymphs  of  the  libella  receive  and  eje& 
water  by  an  aperture  at  the  termination  of  their  bodies. 
Thefe  nymphs  fometimes  throw  out  the  water,  at  certain 
intervals,  with  fuch  force,  that  the  ftream  is  perceptible 
at  the  diftance  of  two  or  three  inches  from  their  bodies. 
When  kept  fome  time  out  of  the  water,  the  defire  or  ne- 
ceflity of  refpiration  is  augmented ;  and,  accordingly, 
wjien  replaced  in  a  veflel  filled  with  water,  infpirations 
and  refpirations  are  repeated  with  unufual  force  and  fre- 
quency. If  you  hold  one  of  thefe  nymphs  in  your  hand, 
and  apply  drops  of  water  to  the  pofterior  end  of  its  body, 
it  inftantly,  by  an  apparatus  fimilar  to  the  pifton  of  a  pump, 
fucks  in  the  water,  and  the  dimenfions  of  its  body  are 
vifibly  augmented.  This  water  is  again  quickly  thrown 
out  by  the  fame  inftrument.  But,  though  this  infed  re- 
fpires water,  air  feems  to  be  not  the  lefs  neceflary  to 
its  exiftence  ;  for,  like  other  infecls,  the  whole  interior 
part  of  its  body  is  amply  provided  with  large  and  convo- 
luted 


n8  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

luted  tracheae ;  and,  externally,  there  are  feveral  ftigmata 
deftined  for  the  introduction  of  air  *. 

The  worms,  or  nymphs,  of  the  ephemeron  flies  merit 
attention.     They  have  received  the  denomination  of  ephe- 
merony  becaufe  almoft  none  of  them  furvive  the  day  in 
which  they  are  transformed  into  flies.    But,  many  of  them 
live  not  one  hour  after  their  transformation.     When  in 
the  worm  and  nymph  dates,  they  generally  live  in  holea 
near  the  furface  of  the  water  ;  and,  under  thefe  two  forms, 
continue  to  grow  till  they  are  mature1  for  palling  into  the 
laft  and  fhorteft  period  of  their  exiftence.     Swammerdam 
informs  us,  that  fome  of  them  remain  three  years  under 
water,  others  two,  and  others  one  only.     During  their 
abode  in  this  element,  they  are  nourifhed  and  prepared  for 
their  laft  and  fatal  change.     Immediately  after  the  males 
have  joined  their  mates,  and  the  females  have  depofited 
their  eggs  in  the  water,  both  perifh,  but  not  before  they 
have  left  the  rudiments  of  a  numerous  race  of  fuccefibrs. 
As  long  as  thefe  infects  live  in  the  water,  to  inattentive  ob- 
fervers,  their  general  appearance  is  nearly  the  fame.  When 
they  have  palled,  however,  into  nymphs,  the  veftiges  of 
wings  may  be  perceived,  which  we  look  for  in  vain  during 
their  firfl  or  worm  ftate.     In  both  ftates,  the  infecl  which 
is  to  become  an  ephemeron  fly  has  fix  legs  attached  to  the 
breaft.     The  head  is  triangular,  and  from  the  bafe  of  each 
eye  proceeds  an  articulated  feeler.     The  body  is  compof- 
ed  of  ten  rings,  from  the  lad  of  which  three  tails,  that 
probably  perform  the  office  of  tracheae,  arife.     Thefe  tails, 
in  fome  fpecies,  are  as  long  as  the  animal's  body,  and  are 
fringed  with  hairs  which  have  a  refemblance  to  feathers. 
But,  what  principally  deferves  our  notice  on  this  fubjed 
is,  that,  on  each  fide  of  the  body,  there  are  fix  or  feven 
protuberances,  which  have  the  appearance  of  fo   many 
oars.    With  thefe  inflruments  the  animals  defcribe  arches 
in  the  water,  firfi  on  one  fide,  and  then  on  the  other,  with 
aftonifhing  rapidity*     This  circumftance  led  Clutius,  and 
fome  other  authors,  to  think  that  thefe  protuberances  were 
fins,  or  inftruments  of  motion,  and  that  the  animals  were 
fifties.     But  Reaumur  remarked  that  they  moved  thefe 

fins 

*  Reaumur,  torn.  12.  pag.  187.  duod.  edit.     S. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.        119 

fins  with  the  fame  rapidity  when  the  animals  were  at  reft 
as  when  they  were  in  motion  ;  and  that,  inftead  of  fins9 
when  examined  by  the  inicrofcope,  he  difcovered  them  to 
be  gills,  through  which  the  creatures  refpire.  Each  gill 
confifts  of  a  fhort  trunk,  and  two  large  branches,  or  tubes, 
which  give  off  on  all  fides  a  number  of  fmaller  ramifica*- 
tions,  and  are  perfectly  fimilar  to  the  tracheae  of  other  ia- 
fects.  At  the  origin  of  every  gill,  two  trachese  penetrate 
the  trunk,  and  are  difperfed  through  the  body  of  the  ani- 
mal. 

Though  the  ftigmata,  or  refpiratory  organs,  of  cater- 
pillars and  other  infects,  were  long  known  to  ferve  the 
purpofe  of  infpiration,  yet  it  was  uncertain  whether  the 
animals  refpired  by  the  fame  orifices,  till  Bonnet,  and, 
after  him,  Reaumur,  afcertained  the  fact  by  many  curi- 
ous and  accurate  experiments.  The  firft  of  thefe  authors 
immerfed  numbers  of  caterpillars,  of  different  kinds, 
and  at  different  times,  in  water,  and  he  obferved,  both 
with  the  naked  eye,  and  by  the  affiftance  of  a  glafs,  bub- 
bles of  air  iffuing  from  various  parts  of  their  bodies,  and 
particularly  from  the  ftigmata.  To  remove  all  deception 
from  his  experiments,  before  irnmerfion,  he  carefully 
moiftened  the  caterpillars  with  water,  in  order  to  diflodge 
any  portions  of  the  external  air  that  might  be  adhering 
to  their  bodies.  Some  of  them  he  allowed  to  remain  fo 
long  under  water,  that  they  had  every  appearance  of  death. 
He  then  raifed  the  head  and  the  two  anterior  ftigmata 
above  the  furface.  The  head,  and  firft  pair  of  legs^  foon 
began  to  move  from  fide  to  fide ;  and  the  body  necefTarily 
partook  of  the  fame  motions.  During  thefe  movements, 
many  bubbles  of  air  iflued  from  the  pofterior  and  inter- 
mediate ftigmata,  which  ftill  remained  under  water ;  but 
the  membranous  limbs  continued  nearly  at  reft.  He 
next  kept  a  caterpillar  under  water  till  all  motion  was 
fufpencled.  Then  he  elevated  the  anus  and  the  two  lail 
ftigmata  above  the  furface,  that  they  might  have  a  com- 
munication with  the  external  air.  He  kept  the  animal  in 
this  fituation  about  half  an  hour,  without  any  fymptoms 
ef  re-animation.  After  raifing  the  body  fucceffively  from 
the  laft  to  the  firft  pair  of  ftigmata,  ftill  the  animal  exhi- 
bited 


120  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

bited  no  fymptoms  of  life  ;  but,  when  he  expofed  the 
whole  body  to  the  external  air  for  half  an  hour,  the  pow- 
ers of  life  completely  returned.  After  fufpending  the 
caterpillar  about  two  hours  with  the  laft  five  pair  of  ftig- 
rnata  above  the  furface,  he  found  that  life  was  not  extin- 
guifhed.  He  then  raifed  the  water  till  the  anus  and  laft 
pair  of  fligmata  only  were  expofed  to  the  atmofphere. 
He  allowed  the  caterpillar  to  remain  in  this  fituation 
more  than  half  an  hour  ;  and  he  obferved  that  it  often 
bended  its  body  with  a  view  to  reach  the  furface,  and  that, 
during  thefe  efforts,  bubbles  of  air  hTued  from  the  ante- 
rior, but  not  from  the  pofterior,  fligmata.  He  likewife 
remarked,  that,  on  the  fmalleft  motion  of  the  animal, 
thefe  bubbles  were  difcharged,  but  that  they  were 
augmented  both  in  quantity  and  fize,  in  proportion 
to  the  agitations  of  the  body.  M.  Bonnet  immediately 
raifed  the  water  till  it  covered  the  two  laft  fligmata  ;  the 
caterpillar  was  violently  agitated  ;  but  no  bubbles  of  air, 
the  communication  being  cut  off,  appeared,  and  all  mo- 
tion ceafed.  He  inftantly  lowered  the  water,  and  expofed 
the  two  pofterior  ftigmata  to  the  air  ;  the  animal  refumed 
it  movements  ;  but  in  a  moment  after  it  expired.  By 
another  experiment,  M.  Bonnet  difcovered  that  a  cater- 
pillar lived  eight  days  fufpended  in  water,  during  all 
which  time  it  breathed  folely  by  the  two  pofterior  ftig- 
mata. 

After  thefe,  and  many  other  fads  of  a  fimilar  kind, 
which  demonftrate  that  air  is  neceffary  for  the  fupport 
and  continuation  of  animal  life,  it  mail  only  be  remarked, 
that,  when  caterpillars  undergo  their  laft  change,  arid 
appear  in  the  form  of  flies  of  every  denomination,  Na- 
ture has  ftili  furnifhed  them  with  ftigmata,  or  refpiratory 
organs. 

Reptiles  of  all  kinds  are  likewife  furnifhed  with  organs 
of  refpiration.  Land-fnails,  at  the  approach  of  winter, 
bury  themfelves  in  the  earth,  or  retire  into  holes  of  rocks, 
or  of  old  buildings,  where  they  remain  in  a  torpid  ftate 
during  the  feverity  of  the  feafon.  For  protection  and 
warmth,  thefe  animals,  when  they  go  into  their  winter 
habitations,  form,  by  means  of  a  flime  or  faliva  that  if- 

fues 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  121 

fues  from  every  pore  of  their  bodies,  a  membranous  co- 
ver, which  flops  up  the  mouths  of  their  {hells.  But  this 
pellicle,  or  cover,  though  apparently  pretty  hard  and  folid, 
is  fo  thin  and  porous  as  not  entirely  to  exclude  the  en- 
trance of  air,  without  which  the  principle  of  life  could 
not  be  continued.  Accordingly,  when,  by  accident,  the 
pellicle  is  made  too  thick,  and  prevents  a  communication 
with  the  external  air,  the  animal,  to  remedy  the  evil, 
makes  a  fmall  aperture  in  its  cover.  In  this  ilate  fnails 
remain  fix  or  feven  months,  without  food  or  motion,  till 
the  genial  warmth  of  the  fpring  breaks  their  flumber,  and 
calls  forth  their  active  powers.  Hence  it  mould  appear, 
that  air  is  more  necefiary  to  the  prefervation  of  animal 
life  than  food  itfelf ;  for,  in  numberlefs  inftances,  ani- 
mals can  live,  not  for  days  or  weeks,  but  for  months, 
without  fupplies  of  nourimment.  None  of  them,  how- 
ever, are  capable  of  exifling  nearly  fo  long  without  hav- 
ing fome  communication  with  the  air. 

With  regard  to  fnails  that  live  in  frefh  waters,  or  in  the 
ocean,  the  fpecies  of  which  are  numerous,  their  manner 
of  refpiring  is  fingular.  All  of  them  have  an  aperture 
on  the  right  fide  of  the  neck.  This  aperture  ferves  the 
complicated  purpofes  of  difcharging  the  feces,  of  lodg- 
ing the  organs  of  generation,  of  afcending  and  defcend- 
ing  in  the  water,  and  of  refpiration.  They  are  frequently 
obferved  to  ftraiten  the  orifice  of  this  aperture,  to  ftretch 
it  out  in  the  form  of  an  oblong  tube  ;  and,  in  this  (late, 
they  rife  to  the  furface,  in  older  to  expel  the  former  air, 
and  take  in  a  new  fupply. 

But,  though  air  feems  to  be  an  indifpenfible  principle 
of  animal  life,  yet  many  animals  can  live  longer  without 
the  ufe  of  this  element,  or  at  leaft  with  fmaller  quanti- 
ties of  it,  than  others.  Even  men,  by  long  practice, 
acquire  the  faculty  of  retaining  the  air  in  their  lungs  for 
an  almoft  incredible  length  of  time.  Some  of  thofe 
wretched  creatures  who  are  compelled  by  tyranny  to  dive 
for  pearl-oyfters,  have  been  known  to  continue  under 
water  three  quarters  of  an  hour  without  receiving  a  frelh 
fupply  of  air.  Thofe  animals  which  lie  torpid  during 
the  winter,  as  the  hedge-hog,  the  dormoufe,  the  marmot, 

C  &c. 


122  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

£c.  though  perhaps  not  entirely  deprived  of  all  commu- 
nication with  the  air,  exiit,  without  any  apparent  brea- 
thing, till  the  heat  of  the  fpring  reflores  their  wonted 
powers  of  life,  when  the  refpiration  of  air  becomes  again 
equally  neceiTary  as  before  their  torpor  commenced.  The 
toad,  like  all  the  frog-kind,  is  torpid  in  winter.  At  the 
approach  of  winter,  the  toad  retires  to  the  hollow  root 
of  a  tree,  to  the  cleft  of  a  rock,  and  fometimes  to  the 
bottom  of  a  ditch,  or  pond,  where  it  remains  for  months 
in  a  flate  of  feeming  infenfibility.  In  this  lafl  fituation, 
it  can  have  very  little  communication  with  the  air.  But 
flill  the  principle  of  life  is  continued,  and  the  animal  re- 
vives in  the  fpring.  What  is  more  wonderful,  toads  have 
been  found,  in  a  hundred  places  of  the  globe,  inclofed 
in  the  heart  of  folid  rocks,  and  in  the  bodies 'of  trees, 
where  they  have  been  fuppofed  to  exifl  for  centuries, 
without  any  apparent  accefs  either  to  nourifliment  or  to 
air  ;  and  yet  they  were  alive  and  vigorous.  In  the  Me- 
moirs of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  for  the  year  1719, 
we  have  an  account  of  a  toad  found  alive,  and  healthy, 
in  the  heart  of  an  old  elm.  Another,  in  the  year  1731, 
was  difcovered,  near  Nantz,  in  the  heart  of  an  old  oak, 
without  any  viiible  entrance  to  its  habitation.  From  the 
fize  of  the  tree,  it  was  concluded,  that  the  animal  muft 
have  been  confined  in  that  fituation  at  leaft  eighty  or  a 
hundred  years.  In  the  many  examples  of  toads  found 
in  folid  rocks, -exa&  impreffions  of  the  animals  bodies, 
correfponding  to  their  refpedive  fizes,  were  uniformly 
left  in  the  ftones  or  trees  from  which  they  were  diflodg- 
ed ;  and,  to  this  day,  it  is  faid,  that  there  is  a  marble 
chimney-piece  at  Chatfworth  with  a  print  of  a  toad  in  it ; 
and  a  traditionary  account  of  the  place  and  manner  in 
which  it  was  difcovered. 

Thefe,  and  fimilar  fads,  are  fupported  by  authorities 
fo  numerous  and  fo  reipectable,  that  it  is  unneceflary  to 
quote  them.  Many  abortive  attempts  have  been  made 
to  account  for  an  animal's  growing  and  living  very  long 
in  the  fituations  above  defcribed,  without  the  pofiibility 
of  receiving  nourilhment  or  air  j  efpecially  as,  like  all 
other  animals,  when  put  into  an  exhaufted  receiver,  the 

toad 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         123 

toad  foon  lofes  its  exiftence.  Upon  this  fubjeft  I  fhall 
only  hazard  two  obfervations.  The  toad,-  it  is  well  known, 
when  kept  in  a  damp  place,  can  live  feveral  months  with- 
out food  of  any.  kind,  though,  in  its  (late  of  natural 
liberty,  it  devours  voraciouily  fpiders,  maggots,  ants,  and 
other  infecls.  Here  we  have  an  inftance,  and  there  are 
many,  of  an  animal  whofe  constitution  is  fo  framed  by 
Nature,  that  it  can  exifl  feveral  months  without  receiving 
any  portion  of  food.  According  to  our  ideas  of  the  ne- 
ceffity  of  frequent  fupplies  of  nourimment,  it  is  nearly 
as  difficult  for  us  to  conceive  an  abftinence  of  four  or  fix 
months  as  one  of  as  many  years,  or  even  centuries.  The 
one  fact,  therefore,  though  we  are  unable  to  account  for 
either,  may  be  as  readily  admitted  as  the  other.  The 
fame  remark  is  equally  applicable  to  the  regular  refpira- 
tion  of  air.  The  toad,  and  many  other  animals,  from 
fome  peculiarity  in  their  conflitution,  can  live  very  long 
in  a  torpid  date  without  feeming  to  refpire,  and  yet  their 
principle  of  life  is  not  entirely  extinguimed.  Hence  the 
toad  may,  and  actually  does,  live  many  years  in  fituati- 
ons  which  exclude  a  free  intercourfe,  with  the  external 
air.  Befides,  almoft  all  the  above,  and  fimilar  facts,  muft, 
from  their  nature,  have  been  difcovered  by  common  la- 
bourers, who  are  totally  unqualified  for  examining  every 
circumftance  with  the  difcerning  eye  of  a  philofopher. 
In  rocks  there  are  many  chinks,  as  well  as  fiffures,  both 
horizontal  and  perpendicular ;  and  in  old  trees  nothing 
is  more  frequent  than  holes  and  vacuities  of  different  di- 
menfions.  Through  thefe  firTures  and  vacuities  the  eggs 
of  toads  may  accidentally  be  conveyed  by  water,  the  pe- 
netration of  which  few  fubftaRces  are  capable  of  refitting. 
After  the  eggs  are  hatched,  the  animals  may  receive  moi- 
fture,  and  fmall  portions  of  air,  through  the  crevices  of 
rocks,  or  the  channels  of  aged  trees.  But,  I  mean  not 
to  perfuade;  for  I  cannot  fatisfy  myfelf.  All  I  intend 
is,  to  recommend  to  thofe  gentlemen  who  may  hereafter 
chance  to  fee  fuch  rare  phenomena,  a  ftricl  examination 
of  every  circumftance  that  can  throw  light  upon  a  fubject 
fo  dark  and  myflerious ;  for  the  vulgar,  ever  inclined  to 

render 


124  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

render  uncommon  appearances  flill  more  marvellous,  are 
not  to  be  trufted. 

From  the  facts  I  have  enumerated,  it  is  apparent  that 
air,  in  certain  proportions,  according  to  the  ftru&ure  and 
conflitution  of  every  animated  being  of  which  we  have 
any  knowledge,  is  indifpenfibly  neceflary  for  the  exiftence 
and  continuation  of  animal  life.  Not  only  men,  quadru- 
peds, birds,  fifties,  reptiles,  and  the  larger  infects,  but 
even  fleas,  mites,  the  minute  eels  found  in  pafle  or  in 
vinegar,  and  the  animalcules  produced  by  infufmg  ani- 
mal or  vegetable  fubftances  in  water,  inevitably  perifh 
when  deprived  of  this  all-vivifying  element. 

With  regard  to  plants,  air  is  fo  neceflary  to  their  ex- 
iftence, that  they  do  not  vegetate  in  an  exhaufted  receiver. 
Plants,  as  formerly  mentioned,  are  furnifhed  with  nume- 
rous air-veifels,  or  refpiratory  organs.  They  abforb  and 
tranfmit  air  through  every  pore.  When  placed  in  an  ex- 
haufted  receiver,  the  air  contained  in  every  part  of  their 
fubftance  is  foon  extracted ;  and,  in  proportion  as  this 
air  is  likewife  pumped  out  by  the  machine,  the  flowers 
and  leaves  fhow  evident  fymtoms  of  debility ;  they  be- 
come flaccid,  pendulous,  and  aflume  a  fickly  appearance  ; 
and,  if  retained  in  that  fituation  a  certain  length  of  time, 
their  vegetating  powers  are  irrecoverably  extinguiflied. 

Upon  the  whole,  as  the  air  we  continually  breathe  is 
an  uriiverfal  menftruum,  and,  of  courfe,  liable  to  be  im- 
pregnated with  exhalations  from  every  fubftance  to  which 
it  has  accefs,  the  great  importance  of  perfonal,  as  well 
as  of  domeftic,  cleanlinefs,  is  an  obvious  reflection.  In 
building  towns  or  houfes,  the  fituation,  with  regard  to 
air,  is  a  capital  object.  The  vicinity  of  marfhes,  of 
ftagnating  waters,  of  manufactures  of  tallow,  oil,  fal- 
ammoniac,  the  fmeiting  or  corroding  of  metals  of  every 
kind,  and  many  other  operations  which  contaminate  the 
air,  fhouid  be  either  avoided  or  removed,  as  they  are  the 
pefts  of  our  fenfes,  and  the  poifoners  of  our  conftituti- 
ons.  Even  in  northern  climates,  houfes  furrounded  with 
trees,  or  in  the  neighbourhood  of  luxuriant  vegetables, 
are  always  damp,  and  infefted  with  infects  ;  and  hence 
the  ambient  air  is  replete  with  the  feeds  of  difeafe.  Pre- 
cautions 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          125 

cautions  of  this  kind  are  flill  more  neceflary  in  hot  cli- 
mates. Air,  like  other  menftruums,  abforbs  a  greater  or 
lefs  proportion  of  the  particles  of  bodies,  according  to  its 
degree  of  heat.  In  Madrid,  however,  in  Conftantinople, 
and  in  many  other  cities  of  warm  regions,  the  houfes  are 
crowded  together,  the  ftreets  are  narrow,  and  covered 
with  filth  of  every  kind.  We  cannot,  therefore,  be  fur- 
prifed,  that  human  beings  exifting  in  fuch  fituations  mould 
be  fo  frequently  infected  with  peflilential  difeafes. 


CHAPTER     IV. 

Of  Motion. 


MOTION,  in  the  opinion  of  Ariftotle,  and  the  ad- 
mirers of  antient  philofophy,  can  only  be  produced 
by  mind ;  and  hence  they  define  mind  to  be  thepoiver  of 
moving.  By  the  fame  mode  of  reafoning,  it  may  be  faid 
that  refti  or  inactivity ,  is  the  power  of  being  moved.  But 
fuch  fpeculations  are  foreign  to  the  nature  of  this  work, 
and  perhaps  fruitlefs  in  themfelves.  Though  it  is  impof- 
fible  to  give  an  unexceptionable  definition  of  motion,  the 
phenomenon  itfelf  is  obvious  to  every  man's  fenfes. 

All  the  terreflrial  objects  which  prefent  themfelves  to 
our  obfervation  are,  with  regard  to  motion,  diftinguifhable 
into  two  general  claries.  The  firlt  confifts  of  thofe  which 
are  endowed  with  a  fpontaneous,  or  felf-moving,  power, 
and  with  fome  qualities  and  affections  fimilar  to  thofe 
of  our  minds.  The  fecond  confifts  of  all  thofe  objects  in 
which  no  fuch  qualities  and  affections  appear,  and  are  of 
a  nature  fo  paffive,  that  they  never  move  of  themfelves, 
nor,  when  put  in  motion,  do  they  ever  flop  without  fome 
external  influence  or  refinance.  The  firfl  clafs  of  objects, 
from  their  poffeffing  the  power  of  fpontaneous  motion, 
and  other  qualities  peculiar  to  animated  beings,  are  eafily 
diflinguifhed  from  body,  or  matter,  which  is  totally  de- 
prived 


126  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

prived  of  all  thefe  qualities.  In  confequence  of  its  paffive 
nature,  matter  not  only  never  changes  its  (late  without 
external  force,  but  refills  when  any  fuch  change  is  at- 
tempted to  be  made.  When  at  reft,  it  cannot  be  put  in 
motion  without  difficulty  ;  and,  when  in  motion,  a  cer- 
tain force  is  required  to  flop  its  courfe.  The  force  with 
which  matter  perfeveres  in  its  flate,  and  refifts  any  change, 
is  called  its  vis  inertia^  and  is  always  proportional  to  the 
quantity  of  matter  in  any  particular  body.  When  we 
double  or  triple  a  body,  we  uniformly  find,  that  the  force 
requisite  to  move  it  with  equal  celerity  mufl  likewife  be 
doubled  or  tripled.  Thefe,  and  fimilar  facts,  which  are 
refults  of  perpetual  experience,  fliow  that  body  is  equal- 
ly indifferent  to  motion  and  reft ;  that  this  indifference 
feems  to  be  the  natural  confequence  of  the  moft  abfolute 
inactivity ;  and  that  the  power  of  beginning  motion  is 
peculiar  to  active  and  intelligent  beings.  Leaving,  there- 
fore, all  metaphyfical  fpeculations  on  this  fubject,  we  mall 
give  fome  remarks  upon  the  motions  of  animals. 

In  general,  all  the  progreffive  motions  of  animals  are 
performed  by  the  inftrumentality  of  mufcles,  tendons,  and 
articulations.  The  operation  of  mufcles  depends  upon 
fome  unknown  influence  derived  to  them  from  the  brain 
and  nerves.  Hence  the  brain  and  nerves  are  the  fources 
of  every  motion,  as  well  as  of  every  fenfation.  With 
regard  to  the  caufes  which  determine  the  actions  of  ani- 
mals, thefe  muft  be  referred  to  fenfation,  and  the  confe- 
quent  exertions  of  intellect.  The  firft  impreflion  an  object 
makes  upon  our  fenfations  ftimulates  us  either  to  approach 
or  retire  from  it,  according  as  it  excites  affection  or  aver- 
fion.  Thefe  motions  neceffarily  refult  from  the  firft  im- 
preilion  made  by  the  object.  But  man,  and  many  other 
animals,  have  the  power  of  refilling  thefe  original  motives 
to  action,  and  of  remaining  at  reft,  without  either  retir- 
ing or  approaching.  c  If  a  man,'  fays  the  Count  de  Buf- 
fon,  c  were  deprived  of  fight,  he  would  make  no  move- 
c  meiit  to  gratify  his  eyes.  The  fame1  thing  would  happen, 
6  if  he  were  deprived  of  any  of  the  other  fenfes  ;  and,  if 
c  deprived  of  every  fenfe,  he  would  remain  perpetually  at 
6  reft,  and  no  object  would  excite  him  to  move,  though, 

c  by 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  127 

6  by  natural  conformation,  he  were  fully  capable  of  mo- 
*  tion.'  Natural  wants,  as  that  of  taking  nourifhment, 
neceffarily  excite  deiire  or  appetite.  But,  if  a  man  be  de- 
prived of  fenfation,  want  cannot  exift,  becaufe  all  its 
fources  are  annihilated.  This  is  cutting  off  all  the  caufes, 
and  at  the  fame  time  looking  for  the  effects.  An  animal 
without  fome  fenfation  is  no  animal,  but  a  dead  mafs  of 
matter.  Sentiment  is  the  only  ftimulus  to  animal  motion ; 
the  aptnefs  of  the  parts  produces  the  effect,  which  varies 
according  to  the  ftructure  and  deflination  of  thefe  parts. 
The  fenfe  of  want  creates  defire.  Whenever  an  animal 
perceives  an  object  fitted  to  fupply  its  wants,  defire  is  the 
neceflary  confequence,  and  action  or  motion  inftantiy  fuc- 
ceeds. 

Befide  progreflive  motion,  the  motion  of  hands,  and 
other  parts  of  animal  bodies,  which  are  all  effected  by 
means  of  mufcles,  and  are  fubject  to  the  will  of  the  crea- 
tures who  perform  them,  there  are  other  motions  that  have 
little  or  no  dependence  on  our  inclinations.  Of  this  kind 
are  the  action  of  the  heart,  the  circulation  of  the  blood, 
the  digeflion  of  food,  the  periftaltic  motion  of  the  bow- 
els, the  progrefs  of  the  chyle  from  the  ftomach  and  intef- 
tines  to  the  fubclavian  vein,  the  movement  of  the  various 
fecreted  liquors,  fuch  as  the  gall,  the  urine,  the  faliva,  &c. 
Thefe,  together  with  the  action  of  the  lungs  in  refpiratiori, 
have  received  the  denomination  of  'vital  and  involuntary 
motions,  becaufe  mod  of  them  go  on  without  any  confci- 
ous  exertions  of  the  intellectual  principle.  If  fuch  a  va- 
riety of  nice  and  complicated  movements  had  been  left  to 
the  determination  and  direction  of  our  minds,  they  mufl 
neceffarily  have  occupied  too  much  of  our  attention ;  and 
many  of  them  would  infallibly  have  been  neglected  during 
ileep,  when  confcioufnefs  is  often  almoft  totally  fufpended. 
But  Nature  in  her  operations  is  always  wife.  She  has 
given  to  man,  and  other  animals,  the  direction  of  no 
movements  but  what  are  eafily  performed,  contribute  to 
pleafure  and  health,  and  enable  them  to  acquire  food  cor- 
refponding  to  the  ftructure  of  their  bodies  and  the  ele- 
ments in  which  they  live. 

It  never  was  my  intention,  and,  indeed,  it  would  have 

been 


128  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

been  foreign  to  the  defign  of  this  work,  and  ill  fuited  to 
that  clafs  of  mankind  to  whom  I  wifh  chiefly  to  be  ufeful, 
to  enter  into  the  rationale  of  animal  motion ;  to  mention 
the  number,  infertion,  and  dire&ion,  of  the  mufcles  em- 
ployed in  moving  the  different  parts  of  animated  bodies  ; 
or  to  account  for  the  modes  by  which  animals  walk,  leap, 
fly,  fwim,  creep,  &c.  Such  difcuflions  would  not  only 
require  a  volume,  but  a  thorough  acquaintance  with  all 
the  depths  of  anatomical  and  mathematical  knowledge. 
What  follows,  therefore,  will  confift  of  fome  defultory  ob- 
fervations ;  and  the  fubject  (hall  be  concluded  by  enume- 
rating a  few  examples  of  movements  peculiar  to  certain 
animals. 

The  motions  of  animals  are  proportioned  to  their  weight 
and  (Iructure.  A  flea  can  leap  fome  hundred  times  its  own 
length.  Were  an  elephant,  a  camel,  or  a  horfe,  to  leap 
in  the  fame  proportion,  their  weight  would  crufh  them  to 
atoms.  The  fame  remark  is  applicable  to  fpiders,  worms, 
and  other  infects.  The  foftnefs  of  their  texture,  and  the 
comparative  fmallnefs  of  their  fpecific  gravity,  enable 
them  to  fall  with  impunity  from  heights  that  would  prove 
fatal  to  larger  and  heavier  animals. 

Motion  gives  birth,  perfection,  death,  and  reproduction, 
to  all  animal  and  vegetable  beings.  It  is  the  caufe  of  all 
that  diverfity  and  change  which  perpetually  affect  every 
object  in  the  univerfe.  The  globe  we  inhabit,  as  well  as 
the  innumerable  and  flupendous  heavenly  bodies  which 
prefent  themlelves,  in  forms  apparently  minute,  to  our 
obfervation,  conftantly  exhibit  motions  of  the  moft  in- 
conceivable rapidity.  The  magnitude  of  this  earth,  when 
considered  with  relation  to  man,  and  other  animals,  ap- 
pears to  be  exceedingly  great.  It  is  indeed  fufficiently 
ipacious,  and  fufficiently  prolific,  for  the  conveniency  and 
maintenance  of  its  inhabitants.  The  magnificent  objects 
difplayed  on  its  furface  excite  the  admiration  of  every  be- 
holder. Its  plains  and  mountains,  its  rivers  and  lakes, 
its  iflands  and  continents,  its  feas  and  oceans,  continually 
folicit  attention,  gratify  curiofity,  and  call  forth  the  powers 
of  reafon,  and  reflection.  But,  when  compared  to  the 
other  heavenly  bodies,  the  number  and  magnitude  of 

which 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         129 

which  exceed  all  the  powers  of  human  conception,  the 
grandeur  of  our  earth  diminifhes.  Inftead  of  exciting 
wonder,  it  almoft  vanifhes  from  our  fight.  Inftead  of  an 
immenfe  globe,  it  dwindles  into  a  point,  feems  to  occupy 
no  fpace,  and  lofes  itfelf  in  the  boundlefs  regions  of  the 
univerfe.  Confiderations  of  this  kind  are  apt  to  deprefs 
the  dignity  of  man,  and  to  lelfen  his  importance  in  the 
great  fcale  of  being  ;  but  they  expand  his  mental  facul- 
ties, and  exalt  his  ideas  concerning  that  inconceivable 
Power  which  firft  produced,  and  ftill  fupports,  thofe  afto- 
nifhing  orbs. 

The  different  movements  to  which  animals  are  ftimu- 
iated  by  the  defire  of  food,  by  love,  by  the  appetite  for 
frolic' and  exercife,  by  their  hoflilities,  and  by  other  ex- 
citing caufes,  give  animation  and  vivacity  to  the  whole 
fcene  of  nature.  A  filent  and  motionlefs  profped,  how- 
ever beautiful  and  variegated,  foon  ceafes  to  pleafe^  and  at 
laft  becomes  infupportable.  Motion,  fays  Mr*  Harris^  is 
the  object  or  caufe  of  all  fenfation.  In  mufic  we  hear  it ; 
in  favours  we  tafte  it ;  in  odours  we  fmell  it  ;  in  touch 
we  feel  it ;  in  light  we  fee  it. 

Animals  furnimed  with  definitive  weapons,  or  en- 
dowed with  uncommon  ftrength,  courage,  or  ingenuity, 
are  proportionally  flower  in  their  movements  than  the 
weaker  kinds.  The  fame  remark  is  applicable  to  thofe 
fpecies  whofe  food  is  always  at  hand.  Worms,  caterpil- 
lars, and  many  other  infects,  in  order  to  procure  nou- 
riihment,  are  under  no  neceflity  of  taking  an  extenfive 
range.  But,  the  motions  of  birds  and  fifties  are  extremely 
rapid  ;  becaufe,  in  queft  of  food,  they  are  obliged  to  pals 
through  large  tracts^  and  they  have  alfo  many  enemies  to 
avoid. 

Timid  animals,  as  the  hare,  the  rabbit,  the  Guiney- 
pig,  &c.  are  almoft  perpetually  in  motion.  Even  when 
perfectly  undifturbed,  they  are  refilefs,  and  betray  a  con- 
tinual anxiety  of  danger.  They  run  about,  (top  mort, 
erect  their  ears,  and  liiten.  The  Guiney-pig  frequently 
raifes  itfelf  on  its  hind-legs,  and  ihufls  all  around  to  catch 
the  fcent  of  food  when  hungry,  or  to  increafe  its  circle 
of  hearing  when  afraid. 

R  The 


i3©  THE    PHIL  O  S  OPHY 

The  movements  of  many  animals  are  fo  extremely  flow, 
that  fonie-  of  them,  particularly  thofe  of  the  {hell  tribes, 
are  generally  fuppofed  to  be  deftitute  of  the  power  of 
moving.  It  is  a  common  notion,  that  both  frefh  and  fait 
water 'mufcles  have  not  the  loco-motive  faculty.  But,  this 
is  a  vulgar  error-  It  is  almoft  unneceffary  to  mention, 
that  the  exterior  part  of  mufcles  confiils  of  two  {hells 
hinged  together,  which  the  animals  can  open  or  fhut  at 
pleafure.  Every  perfon  muil  likewife  have  obfe^ved,  in 
the  ftrufture  of  the  animal  itfelf,  a  flelhy  protuberance  of 
a  much  redder  colour,  and  denfer  confidence,  than  the 
other  parts  of  the  body.  This  mufcular  protuberance, 
which  confiils  of  two  lobes,  has  been  denominated  a 
irunk^  or  tongue :  But  it  is  an  inftrument  by  which  the 
creature  is  enabled  to  perform  a  progreffive,  though  a  ve- 
ry flow,  motion  ;  and,  therefore,  in  describing  its  manner 
of  moving,  I  fhall  call  thefe  two  lobes  the  animal's  tenta- 
cula^  or  feet. 

When  inclined  to  remove  from  its  prefent  fituation, 
the  river-mufcle  opens  its  fhell,  thrufts  out  its  tentacula, 
and,  while  lying  on  its  fide  in  an  horizontal  pofition,  digs 
a  fmall  furrow  in  the  fand.  Into  this  furrow,  by  the  ope- 
ration of  the  fame  tentacula,  the  animal  makes  the  fhell 
fall,  and  thus  brings  it  into  a  vertical  pofition.  We  have 
now  got  our  mufcle  on  end ;  but  how  is  he  to  proceed  ? 
He  flretches  forward  his  tentacula,  by  which  he  throws 
back  the  fand,  lengthens  the  furrow,  and  this  fulcrum 
enables  him  to  proceed  on  his  journey. 

With  regard  to  marine  mufcles,  their  progreffive  mo- 
tion is  performed  in  the  fame  manner,  and  by  the  fame 
indruments.  When  not  in  motion,  they  are  all  firmly 
attached  to  rocks,  or  fmall  (tones,  by  many  threads  of 
about  two  inches  in  length,  which  ferve  the  double  pur- 
pofes  of  an  anchor  and  cable.  Without  this  provifion  of 
Nature,  thefe  animals  muft  become  the  fport  of  the  waves, 
and  the  fpecies  would  foon  be  annihilated.  But,  how 
does  the  creature  fpin  thefe  threads  ?  A  cylindrical  canal 
extends  from  the  origin  to  the  extremity  of  the  tentacula. 
In  this  canal  an  extremely  glutenous  fubftance  is  fecreted, 
which  the  animal,  by  the  operation  of  certain  mufcles, 

ha? 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         131 

has  the  power  of  forcing  out,  and  of  attaching  it,  in  the 
form  of  ftrong  threads,  to  {tones  or  other  folid  bodies. 
More  than  a  hundred  and  fifty  of  thefe  cables  are  often 
employed  in  mooring  a  fmgle  mufcle*.  The  fubftance  of 
the  threads  is  exceedingly  vifcous,  indigeftible  in  the  hu- 
man ftomach,  and  is  probably  the  caufe  of  thofe  fatal  confe- 
quences  which  fometimes  happens  to  inattentive  eaters. 
In  Scotland,  thefe  threads  are  called  the  beards  of  muf- 
cles,  and  mould  be  carefully  pulled  off  before  the  animals 
are  thrown  into  the  ftomach. 

Other  bivalved  fhell-fifhes,  the  fpecies  of  which  are 
numerous,  perform  a  progrefiive  or  retrograde  motion  by 
an  inftrument  that  has  no  fmall  refemblance  to  a  leg  and 
foot.  But  the  animals  can,  at  pleafure,  make  this  leg 
afiume  almoft  every  kind  of  form,  according  as  their  ex- 
igencies may  require.  By  this  leg  they  are  not  only  ena- 
bled to  creep,  to  fink  into  the  mud,  or  difengage  them- 
felves  from  it,  but  to  perform  a  motion,  which  no  man 
could  fuppofe  (hell-rimes  were  capable  of  performing. 
When  the  tellina,  or  limpin,  is  about  to  make  a  fpring, 
it  puts  the  fhell  on  the  point,  or  fummit,  as  if  with  a  view 
to  diminifh  fri&ion.  It  then  ftretches  out  the  leg  as  far 
as  poffible,  makes  it  embrace  a  portion  of  the  fhell,  and, 
by  a  fudden  movement,  fimilar  to  that  of  a  fpring  let 
loofe,  it  flrikes  the  earth  with  its  leg,  and  adually  leaps 
to  a  confiderable  diftancef . 

The  fpout-fifh  J  has  a  bivalved  fhell,  which  refembles 
the  handle  of  a  razor.  This  animal  is  incapable  of  pro- 
greffive  motion  on  the  furface  ;  but  it  digs  a  hole  or  cell 
in  the  fand,  fometimes  two  feet  in  depth,  in  which  it  can 
afcend  and  defcend  at  pleafure.  The  inftrument  or  leg 
by  which  it  performs  all  its  movements  is  fituated  at  the 
centre.  This  leg  is  flefhy,  cylindrical,  and  pretty  long. 
When  necefTary,  the  animal  can  make  the  termination  of 
the  leg  arTume  the  form  of  a  ball.  The  fpout-fifh,  when 
lying  on  the  furface  of  the  fand,  and  about  to  fink  into 
it,  extends  its  leg  from  the  inferior  end  of  the  fhell,  and 

makes 

*  Oeuvres  de  Bonnet,  torn.  5.  pag.  361.  410  edit.     S. 
t  Ibid  page  361.     S. 

t  The  name  of  the  animal  in  Scotland.  In  England  it  is  called  rezor-fjk.  S, 
It  is  the  genus  Solen  of  Linnaeus. 


132  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

makes  the  extremity  of  it  take  on  the  form  of  a  fhovel, 
marp  on  each  fide,  and  terminating  in  a  point.  With 
this  inftrument  the  animal  cuts  a  hole  in  the  fand.  After 
the  hole  is  made,  it  advances  the  leg  ftill  farther  into  the 
fand,  makes  it  affume  the  form  of  a  hook,  and  with  this 
hook,  as  a  fulcrum,  it  obliges  the  fhell  to  defcend  into  the 
hole.  In  this  manner  the  animal  operates  till  the  fhell  to- 
tally difappears.  When  it  chufes  to  regain  the  furface,  it 
puts  the  termination  of  the  leg  into  the  fhape  of  a  ball,  anc} 
makes  an  effort  to  extend  the  whole  leg  ;  but  the  ball  pre- 
vents any  farther  defcent,  and  the  mufcular  effort  neceffa- 
rily  pufhes  the  fhell  upward  till  it  reaches  the  furface  or  top 
of  the  hole.  It  is  amazing  with  what  dexterity  and  quick- 
nefs  thefe  feemingly-aukward  motions  are  performed. 

It  is  remarkable  that  the  fpout-fifh,  though  it  lives  in 
fait  water,  abhors  fait.  When  a  little  fait  is  thrown  in- 
to the  hole,  the  animal  inftantly  quits  his  habitation.  But, 
it  is  ftill  more  remarkable,  that,  if  you  feize  the  animal 
with  your  hand,  and  afterwards  allow  it  to  retire  into  its 
cell,  you  may  ftrew  as  much  fait  upon  it  as  you  pleafe, 
but  the  fifh  will  never  again  make  its  appearance.  If  you 
do  not  handle  the  animal,  by  applying  lalt,  you  may  make 
it  come  to  the  furface  as  often  as  you  incline ;  and  fifher- 
men  often  make  ufe  of  this  ftratagem.  This  behaviour 
indicates  more  fentiment  and  recollection  than  one  fhould 
naturally  expect  for  a  fpout-fifh. 

The  fcallop,  another  well  known  bivalved  mell-fim,  has 
the  power  of  progreffive  motion  upon  land,  and  likewife 
of  iwimming  on  the  furface  of  the  water.  When  this 
animal  happens  to  be  deferted  by  the  tide,  it  opens  its 
fhell  to  the  full  extent,  then  fhuts  it  with  a  fudden  jerk,  by 
waich  it  often  rifes  five  or  fix  inches  from  the  ground.  •  In 
this  mariner  it  tumbles  forward  till  it  regains  the  water. 
When  the  fea  is  calm,  troops,  or  little  fleets,  of  fcallops, 
are  often  obferved  fwimming  on  the  furface.  They  raife 
on  ^  valve  of  their  fhell  .above  the  furface,  which  becomes 
a  k;nd  of  fail,  while  the  other  remains  under  the  water, 
anci  anfwers  the  purpoie  of  an  anchor,  by  fleadying  the 
animal,  and  preventing  its  being  overfet.  When  an  ene- 
my approaches,  they  inftantly  fhut  their  fhells,  plunge  to 

the 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         133 

the  bottom,  and  the  whole  fleet  difappears.  By  what 
means  they  are  enabled  to  regain  the  furface,  we  are  ftill 
ignorant, 

With  regard  to  the  loco-motive  faculty  of  the  oyfter, 
the  following  facts  are  recorded  in  the  'Journal  de  Phy- 
fique  by  the  Abbe  Dicquemare.  Like  many  other  bi- 
valved  (hell-fain,  the  oyfter  .has  the  power  of  fquirting  out 
water  with  a  coniiderable  force.  By  thus  fuddenly  and 
forcibly  ejecting  a  quantity  of  water,  the  animal  repulfes 
luch  enemies  as  endeavour  to  infmuate  into  its  fhell  while 
open.  By  the  fame  operation,  if  not  firmly  attached  to 
rocks,  to  fiones,  or  to  one  another,  the  oyfter  retreats 
backwards,  or  ftarts  to  a  fide  in  a  lateral  direction.  Any 
perfon  may  amufe  himfelf  with  the  fquirting  and  motions 
of  oyfters,  by  putting  them  in  a  plate  fituated  in  a  hori- 
zontal polition,  and  which  contains  as  much  fea-water  as 
is  fufficient  to  cover  them.  The  oyfter  has  been  reprefent- 
ed  by  many  authors  as  an  animal  deftitute  not  only  of 
motion,  but  of  every  fpecies  of  fenfation.  The  Abbe 
Dicquemare,  however,  has  fhown,  that  it  can  perform 
movements  perfectly  confonant  to  its  wants,  to  the  dan- 
gers it  apprehends,  and  to  the  enemies  by  which  it  is  at- 
tacked. Inftead  of  being  deftitute  of  all  fenfation,  oyfters 
are  capable  of  deriving  knowledge  from  experience. 
When  removed  from  fituations  which  are  conftantly  co- 
vered with  the  fea,  devoid  of  experience,  they  open  their 
mells,  lofe  their  water,  and  die  in  a  few  days.  But,  even 
when  taken  from  fimilar  fituations,  and  laid  down  in  pla- 
ces from  which  the  fea  occafionally  retires, f  they  feel  the 
effects  of  the  fun's  rays,  or  of  the  cold  air,  or  perhaps  ap- 
prehend the  attacks  of  enemies,  and  accordingly  learn  to 
keep  their  (hells  clofe  till  the  tide  returns.  Conduct 
of  this  kind  plainly  indicates  both  fenfation  and  a  degree 
of  intelligence. 

The  progrefiive  motion  of  the  fea-urchin,  or  fea-egg  % 
a  well  known  multivalved  (hell-fifh,  merits  our  attention. 
This  animal,  of  which  there  are  feveral  fpecies,  is  round, 
oval,  or  fhaped  like  a  bias-bowl.  The  furface  of  the  (hell 
is  divided  into  beautiful  triangular  compartments,  and  co- 
vered 

*  The  Echinus  of  Linnaeus. 


1 34  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

vered  with  numberlefs  prickles  ;  from  which  laft  circum- 
flance  it  has  received  the  appellation  of  fea-urchin^  or  fea- 
hedge-hog.  Thefe  triangles  are  feparated  by  regular  belts, 
and  perforated  by  a  great  number  of  holes.  Each  hole 
gives  lodgement  to  a  flefhy  horn  fimilar  to  thofe  of  the 
fnail,  and  fufceptible  of  the  fame  movements.  Like  the 
fnail,  the  fea-urchin  ufes  its  horns  when  in  motion  ;  but 
their  principal  ufe  is  to  fix  the  animal  to  rocks,  ftones,  or 
the  bottom  of  the  ocean.  By  means  of  the  horns  and 
prickles,  which  proceed  from  almoft  every  point  of  the 
fliell,  the  fea-urchin  is  enabled  to  walk  either  on  its  back 
or  on  its  belly.  The  limbs  it  moil  generally  employs  are 
thofe  which  furround  the  mouth.  But,  when  it  choofes, 
it  can  move  forward,  by  turning  on  itfelf  like  the  wheel 
of  a  coach.  Thus,  the  fea-urchin  furnifhes  an  example 
of  an  animal  employing  many  thoufand  limbs  in  its  vari- 
ous movements.  The  reader  may  try  to  ^conceive  the 
number  of  mufcles,  of  fibres,  and  of  other  apparatus, 
which  are  requifite  to  the  progreffive  motion  of  this  little 
animal. 

The  motion  of  that  fpecies  of  medufa,  or  fea-nettle, 
which  attaches  itfelf  to  rocks,  and  to  the  larger  mell-fim, 
is  extremely  flow.  The  fea-nettles  aflume  fuch  a  variety 
of  figures,  that  it  is  impoffible  to  defcribe  them  under 
any  determinate  fhape.  In  general,  their  bodies  have  a 
refemblance  to  a  truncated  cone.  The  bafe  of  the  cone 
is  applied  to  the  rock,  or  other *fubftance  to  which  they 
adhere.  With  regard  to  colour,  fome  of  them  are  red, 
fome  greenifh,  fome  whitifh,  and  others  are  brown. 
When  the  mouth,  which  is  very  large,  is  expanded,  its 
margin  is  furrounded  with  a  great  number  of  flefhy  fila- 
ments, or  horns,  fimilar  to  thofe  of  the  fnail.  Thefe 
horns  are  difpofe^  in  three  rows  around  the  mouth,  and 
give  the  animal  the  appearance  of  a  flower.  Through  each 
of  thefe  horns  the  fea-nettle  fquirts  water,  like  fo  many 
jets-d'eau.  What  is  peculiar  in  the  ftruclure  of  thefe 
creatures,  the  whole  interior  part  of  their  body,  or  cone, 
is  one  cavity,  or  ftomach.  When  fearching  for  food, 
they  extend  their  filaments,  and  entangle  any  fmall  ani- 
mals they  encounter.  When  they  meet  with  their  prey, 

they 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  135 

they  inflantly  fwallow  it,  and  fhut  their  mouths  clofe  like 
a  purfe.  Though  the  animal  mould  not  exceed  an  inch, 
or  an  inch  and  an  half,  in  diameter,  as  it  is  all  mouth  and 
ftomach,  it  fwallows  large  whelks  and  mufcles.  Thefe 
fhell-ammals  fometimes  remain  many  days  in  the  flomach 
before  they  are  ejected.  Their  nutrifying  parts  are  at  laft, 
however,  extracted  ;  but  how  does  the  fea-nettle  get  quit 
of  the  (hell  ?  The  creature  has  no  other  aperture  in  its 
body  but  the  mouth,  and  this  mouth  is  the  inftrument  by 
which  it  both  receives  nourifhment,  and  difcharges  the 
excrement,  or  unprofitable  part  of  its  food.  When  the 
fhel!  is  not  too  large,  the  fea-nettle  has  the  power  of  turn- 
ing its  infide  out,  and  by  this  ftrange  manoeuvre  the  fhell 
is  thrown  out  of  the  body,  and  the  animal  refumes  its 
former  (late.  ;  But,  when  the  fhell  prefents  itfelf  in  a  wrong 
pofition,  the  animal  cannot  difcharge  it  in  the  ufual  man- 
ner ;  but,  what  is  extremely  fingular,  near  the  bafe  of  the 
cone,  the  body  of  the  creature  fplits,  as  if  a  large  wound 
had  been  made  with  a  knife,  and  through  this  gafh  the 
fhell  of  the  mufcle,  or  other  fhell,  is  ejeded. 

With  regard  to  the  progreffive  motion  of  the  fea-nettle, 
it  is  as  flow  as  the  hour-hand  of  a  clock.  The  whole  ex- 
ternal part  of  its  body  is  furnifhed  with  numerous  mufcles. 
Thefe  mufcles  are  tubular,  and  filled  with  a  fluid,  which 
makes  them  project  in  the  form  of  prickles.  By  the  in- 
flrumentality  of  thefe  mufcles,  the  animal  is  enabled  to 
perform  the  very  flow  motion'jufl  now  mentioned.  But 
this  is  not  the  only  means  by  which  the  fea-nettle  is  ca- 
pable of  moving.  When  it  pleafes,  it  can  Ipofen  the  bafe 
of  the  cone  by  which  it  is  attached  to  the  rock,  reverfe 
its  body,  and  employ  the  filaments  round  its  mouth  as  fo 
many  limbs.  Still,  however,  its  movements  are  imper- 
ceptibly flow.  For  thefe  fads,  feveral  authors  might  be 
quoted  ;  but  we  fhall  refer  the  reader  folely  to  M.  de 
Bonnet  *. 

Before  we  conclude  this  chapter,  we  fhall  juft  mention 
a  mode  of  flying  which  is  peculiar  to  certain  infects. 
The  mafon-bee^  which  is  one  of  the  folitary  fpecies,  has 
received  that  appellation,  becaufe  it  conftru&s  a  neft  with 

mud, 

*  Ocuvres  de  Bennct,  ^to  edit.  torn.  £,  pag.  345,     S. 


136  T  H  E     P  H  I  L  O  S  OP  H  Y 

mud,  or  mortar.  Externally,  this  neft  has  no  regular  ap* 
pearance  ;  and  is,  therefore,  generally  regarded  as  a  piece 
of  dirt  accidentally  adhering  to  a  wall.  This  habitation, 
however  unfeemly  in  its  exterior  afpect,  is  furnifhed  with 
regular  cells,  and  often  gives  rife  to  great  conflicts.  When 
the  real  proprietor  is  abroad  in  quelt  of  materials  to  ftniih 
the  Reft,  a  ilranger  takes  pofleflion.  At  meeting,  a  battle 
always  enfues.  This  battle  is  fought  in  the  air.  Some- 
times they  fly  with  fuch  rapidity  and  force  againft  each 
other,  that  both  parties  fall  to  the  ground.  But,  in  ge- 
neral, like  birds  of  prey,  the  one  endeavours  to  rife  above 
the  other,  and  to  give  a  downward  blow.  To  avoid  the 
ftroke,  the  undermoft,  inftead  of  flying  forward,  or  late- 
rally, is  frequently  obferved  to  fly  backward.  This  retro- 
grade flight  is  likewife  performed  occasionally  by  the  com- 
mon houfe-fly,  and  forne  other  infe&s,  though  we  are  un- 
able to  perceive  what  flimulates  them  to  perform  this  un- 
common movement. 


CHAP  T  E  R     V. 

Of  the  Inftinft  of  Animals — Divifion  of  Inftincls — Examples 
of  Pure  InftincJ — Of  fuch  Inftincls  as  can  accommodate 
themfel'oes  to  peculiar  clrcumjianccs  and  fituatlons — Of 
JnftincJs  improveable  by  obfervation  and  experience — Some 
remarks  and  conclufions  from  this  view  of  Inftincl. 


MANY  theories  have  been  invented  with  a  view  to 
explain  the  inftin&ive  a&ions  of  animals ;  but  none 
of  them  have  received  the  general  approbation  of  Philo- 
fophers.     This  want  of  fuccefs  in  the  inveftigation  of  a 
fubje&  fo  curious  and  fo  interefting,  muft  be  owing  to  the 
operation  of  fome  powerful  caufes.     Two  of  thele  caufes 
appear  to  be,  a  want  of  attention  to  the  general  ceconomy 
and  manners  of  animals,  and  miftaken  notions  concern- 
ing 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         137 

ing  the  dignity  of  human  nature.  From  perufmg  the 
compofitions  of  moft  authors  who  have  written  upon  ani- 
mal inftinct,  it  is  evident,  that  they  have  chiefly  derived 
their  ideas,  not  from  the  various  mental  qualities  difcover- 
able  in  different  fpecies  of  animals,  but  from  the  feelings 
and  properifities  of  their  own  minds.  Some  of  them,  at 
the  fame  time,  are  fo  averfe  to  allow  brutes  a  participation 
of  that  intellect  which  man  poflelTes  in  fuch  an  eminent 
degree,  that  they  confider  every  animal  adion  to  be  the 
refult  of  pure  mechanifm.  But  the  great  fource  of  error 
on  this  fubject  is,  the  uniform  attempt  to  diftinguiih  in- 
ftinctive  from  rational  motives.  I  mail,  however,  endea- 
vour to  fliow  that  no  fuch  diftindtion  exifts,  and  that  the 
reafoning  faculty  itfelf  is  a  neceffary  refult  of  inftinct. 

The  proper  method  of  inveftigating  fubjects  of  this 
kind,  is  to  collect  and  arrange  the  facts  which  have  been 
diicovered,  and  to  confider  whether  theie  facts  lead  to 
any  general  conclufions.  This  method  I  have  adopted ; 
and  mail  therefore  exhibit  examples  of  pure  inftincts  ; 
of  fuch  inftincts  as  can  accommodate  themfelves  to  peculiar 
circumftances  and  fituations  ;  and  of  inftincts  improve- 
able  by  obfervation  and  experience.  In  the  laft  place,  I 
mall  draw  fome  conclufions. 

I.     Of  Pure  Infi'infis. 

BY  pure  inftincts,  I  mean  thofe,  which,  independent  of 
all  initruction  and  experience,  inftantaneouily  produce 
certain  actions  when  particular  objects  are  prefented  to 
animals,  or  when  they  are  influenced  by  peculiar  feelings, 
Of  this  clafs  the  following  are  examples. 

In  the  human  fpecies,  the  inftinct  of  fucking  is  exerted 
immediately  after  birth.  This  inftinct  is  not  excited  by 
any  fmell  peculiar  to  the  mother,  to  milk,  or  to  any  other 
fubftance ;  for  infants  fuck  indifcriminately  every  thing 
brought  into  contact  with  their  mouths.  The  deiire  of 
fucking,  therefore,  is  innate,  and  coeval  with  the  appe- 
tite for  air. 

The  voiding  of  urine  and  excrement,  fneezing,  re- 
traction of  the  mufcles  upon  the  application  of  any  pain- 

^  S  ful 


136  T  H  E     P  H  I  L  O  S  O  P  H  Y 

mud,  or  mortar.  Externally,  this  neft  has  no  regular  ap* 
pearance  ;  and  is,  therefore,  generally  regarded  as  a  piece 
of  dirt  accidentally  adhering  to  a  wall.  This  habitation, 
however  unfeemly  in  its  exterior  afpe6t,  is  furnifhcd  with 
regular  cells,  and  often  gives  rife  to  great  conflids.  When 
the  real  proprietor  is  abroad  in  queit  of  materials  to  finiih 
the  neft,  a  ftranger  takes  porTeflion.  At  meeting,  a  battle 
always  enfues.  This  battle  is  fought  in  the  air.  Some- 
times they  fly  with  fuch  rapidity  and  force  againft  each 
other,  that  both  parties  fall  to  the  ground.  But,  in  ge- 
neral, like  birds  of  prey,  the  one  endeavours  to  rife  above 
the  other,  and  to  give  a  downward  blow.  To  avoid  the 
ftroke,  the  undermoft,  inftead  of  flying  forward,  or  late- 
rally, is  frequently  obferved  to  fly  backward.  This  retro- 
grade flight  is  likewife  performed  occafionally  by  the  com- 
mon houie-fly,  and  forne  other  infecls,  though  we  are  un- 
able to  perceive  what  llimulates;  them  to  perform  this  un- 
common movement. 


CHAP  T  E  R     V. 

Of  the  Liftincl  of  Animals — Divt/ion  of  Inftincls — Examples 
of  'Pure  Inftinft — Of  fuch  Inftincls  as  can  accommodate 

.  -themfehes  to  peculiar  circumjtanccs  and  filiations — Of 
JnftincJs  improveable  by  obfervation  and  experience — Some 
remarks  and  conditions  from  this  view  of  Inftincl. 


MANY  theories  have  been  invented  with  a  view  to 
explain  the inftincHve  a&ions  of  animals ;  but  none 
of  them  have  received  the  general  approbation  of  Philo- 
fophers.     This  want  of  fuccefs  in  the  invefligation  of  a 
fubjecl  fo  curious  and  ib  interefting,  muft  be  owing  to  the 
operation  of  fome  powerful  caufes.     Two  of  theie  caufes 
appear  to  be,  a  want  of  attention  to  the  general  ceconomy 
and  manners  of  animals,  and  miftaken  notions  concern- 
ing 


"  7 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         137 

ing  the  dignity  of  human  nature.  From  perufmg  the 
competitions  of  mod  authors  who  have  written  upon  ani- 
mal inftinct,  it  is  evident,  that  they  have  chiefly  derived 
their  ideas,  not  from  the  various  mental  qualities  difcover- 
able  in  different  fpecies  of  animals,  but  from  the  feelings 
and  propensities  of  their  own  minds.  Some  of  them,  at 
the  fame  time,  are  fo  averfe  to  allow  brutes  a  participation 
of  that  intellect  which  man  poffelTes  in  fuch  an  eminent 
degree,  that  they  confider  every  animal  adion  to  be  the 
refult  of  pure  mechanifm.  But  the  great  fource  of  error 
on  this  fubject  is,  the  uniform  attempt  to  diftinguiih  in- 
ftinctive  from  rational  motives.  I  mail,  however,  endea- 
vour to  fhow  that  no  fuch  diftinction  exifts,  and  that  the 
reafoning  faculty  itfelf  is  a  neceffary  refult  of  inftinct. 

The  proper  method  of  invefligating  fubjects  of  this 
kind,  is  to  collect  and  arrange  the  fads  which  have  been 
difcovered,  and  to  confider  whether  theie  facts  lead  to 
any  general  conclufions.  This  method  I  have  adopted ; 
and  mall  therefore  exhibit  examples  of  pure  inftincts  ; 
of  fuch  inftincts  as  can  accommodate  themfelves  to  peculiar 
circumftances  and  fituations  ;  and  of  inflincts  improve- 
able  by  obfervation  and  experience.  In  the  lafl  place,  I 
mail  draw  fome  conclufions. 

I.     Of  Pure  Inftinfts. 

BY  pure  inftincts,  I  mean  thofe,  which,  independent  of 
all  initruction  and  experience,  inftantaneoufly  produce 
certain  actions  when  particular  objects  are  prefented  to 
animals,  or  when  they  are  influenced  by  peculiar  feelings. 
Of  this  clafs  the  following  are  examples. 

In  the  human  fpecies,  the  inftinct  of  fucking  is  exerted 
immediately  after  birth.  This  inftinct  is  not  excited  by 
any  fmell  peculiar  to  the  mother,  to  milk,  or  to  any  other 
fubftance ;  for  infants  fuck  indifcriminately  every  thing 
brought  into  contaft  with  their  mouths.  The  defire  of 
fucking,  therefore,  is  innate,  and  coeval  with  the  appe- 
tite for  air. 

The  voiding  of  urine  and  excrement,  fneezing,  re- 
traction of  the  mufcles  upon  the  application  of  any  pain- 

^  S  ful 


i38  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

ful  flimulus,  the  moving  of  the  eye-lids,  and  other  parts 
of  the  body,  are  likewife  effects  of  original  inftincts,  and 
effential  to  the  exiflence  of  young  animals. 

The  love  of  light  is  exhibited  by  infants  at  a  very  early 
period.  I  have  remarked  evident  fymptoms  of  this  attach- 
ment on  the  third  day  after  birth.  When  children  are 
farther  advanced,  marks  of  the  various  paflions  gradually 
appear.  The  pailion  of  fear  is  difcoverable  at  the  age  of 
two  months.  It  is  called  forth  by  approaching  the  hand 
to  the  child's  eye,  and  by  any  fudden  motion  or  unufual 
noife.  I  once  inflituted  a  courfe  of  experiments  to  afcertain 
the  periods  when  the  various  paflions,  principles,  or  pro- 
penfities,  of  the  human  mind  are  unfolded,  and  to  mark 
the  caufes  which  firft  produced  them,  But,  in  lefs  than 
five  months  after  the  birth  of  the  child,  the  bufmefs 
became  too  complicated  and  extenfive  for  the  time  I  had 
to  bellow  on  fubjects  of  this  nature. 

The  brute  creation  affords  innumerable  examples  of 
pure  inftincls. 

When  caterpillars  are  fhaken  off  a  tree  in  every  direc- 
tion, all  of  them  inftantly  turn  toward  the  trunk,  and 
climb  up,  though  they  had  never  formerly  been  on  the 
furface  of  the  ground. 

Young  birds  open  their  mouths  upon  hearing  any  kind 
of  noife,  as  well  as  that  of  their  mother's  voice.  They 
have  no  apprehenfions  of  harm  ;  neither  do  they  offer  to 
ufe  their  wings  till  they  acquire  more  ftrength  and  expe- 
rience. The  lion's  cub  is  not  ferocious  till  he  feels  force 
and  activity  for  deftruction. 

Infects  invariably  depofit  their  eggs  in  iituations  moil 
favourable  for  hatching  and  affording  nourifhment  to 
their  future  progeny.  Butterflies,  and  other  infects,  whofe 
offspring  feed  upon  vegetables,  uniformly  fix  their  eggs 
upon  fuch  plants  as  are  mod  agreeable  to  the  palate  and 
constitution  of  their  young.  Water  infecls  never  depo- 
fit their  eggs  on  dry  ground.  I  have  feen  butterflies  which 
had  been  transformed  in  the  houfe,  exhibit  marks  of 
the  greateft  uneafmefs  becaufe  they  could  not  find  a  pro- 
per nidus  for  their  eggs ;  and,  when  every  other  refource 
failed,  they  patted  the  eggs  on  the  panes  of  the  window. 

Some 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         139 

Some  fpecies  of  animals  look  not  to  future  wants. 
Others,  as  the  bee  and  the  beaver,  are  endowed  with  an 
inftinft  which  has  the  appearance  of  forefight.  They 
conftruct  magazines,  and  fill  them  with  provifions. 

The  common  bees  attend  the  female,  or  queen,  do  her 
many  little  fervices,  and  even  feed  her  with  honey  from 
their  trunks*.  When  deprived  of  the  female,  all  their  la- 
bours ceafe  f ,  till  a  new  one  is  obtained,  whom  they  treat 
with  much  refpect,  and  renew  their  ufual  operations  §. 
They  make  cells  of  three  different  dimenfions,  for  holding 
workers,  drones,  and  females ;  and  the  queen-bee,  in 
depofiting  her  eggs,  diflinguifhes  the  three  different  kinds, 
and  never  puts  a  royal  or  a  drone  egg  into  the  cells  deftin- 
ed  for  the  reception  of  the  working  bees.  What  is  equal- 
ly fingular,  the  number  of  thefe  cells  is  proportioned  to 
that  of  the  different  bees  to  be  produced.  One  royal  cell 
weighs  as  much  as  one  hundred  of  the  common  kind  ||. 
When  there  are  feveral  females  in  a  hive,  the  bees  work 
little  till  they  have  deflroyed  all  the  females  but  one.  If 
more  than  a  fmgle  female  were  allowed  to  remain  in  a 
hive,  a  greater  number  of  eggs  would  be  laid  than  the 
working  bees  are  able  to  make  cells  for  receiving  them. 

The  wood-piercing  bee,  which  is  one  of  the  folitary 
fpecies,  gnaws,  with  amazing  dexterity  and  perfeverance, 
a  large  hole  in  old  timber.  After  laying  her  eggs  in  the 
cells,  ftie  depofits  fuch  a  quantity  of  glutinous  matter  as 
nourifhes  the  worms  produced  from  thefe  eggs  till  the  time 
of  their  transformation  into  flies.  She  then  paftes  up 
the  mouth  of  the  hole,  and  leaves  her  future  offspring  to 
the  provifion  me  has  made  for  them. 

The  bees  of  that  fpecies  which  build  cylindrical  nefts 
with  rofe-leaves,  exhibit  a  very  peculiar  inftincT:.  They 
firft  dig  a  cylindrical  hole  in  the  earth.  When  that  ope- 
ration is  finifhed,  they  go  in  queft  of  rofe-bufhes ';  and, 
after  fele&ing  leaves  proper  for  their  purpofe,  they  cut 
oblong,  curved,  and  even  round  pieces,  exactly  fuited  to 
form  the  different  parts  of  the  cylinder^. 

The 

*  Reaumur,  I2mo  edit.  vol.  9.  pag.  300.     S.          tlbid.  pag.  320.     S. 
^Ibid.  pag.  340.     S.  ||  Ibid.  torn.  10.  pag.  124% 

11  Ibid,  torn,  11.  pag.  138.      S. 


1 42  THE   PHILOSOPHY 

interrupted  in  their  operations,  they  know  how  to  refume 
their  labours,  and  to  accomplifh  their  purpofes,  by  differ- 
ent means.  Some  animals  have  no  othe^  power  but  that 
of  contra&ing  or  extending  their  bodies.  But  the  falcon, 
the  dog,  and  the  fox,  purfue  their  prey  with  intelligence 
and  addrefs. 

The  oftrich  has  been  accufed  of  unnaturalnefs,  becaufe 
fhe  leaves  her  eggs  to  be  hatched  by  the  heat  of  the  fun. 
In  Senegal,  where  the  heat  is  great,  me  negleds  her  eggs 
during  the  day,  but  fits  upon  them  in  the  night.  At 
the  Cape  of  Good-Hope,  however,  where  the  degree  of 
heat  is  lefs,  the  oftrich,  like  other  birds,  fits  upon  her 
eggs  both  day  and  night. 

Rabbits  dig  holes  in  the  ground  for  warmth  and  pro- 
tection. But,  after  continuing  long  in  a  domeftic  ftate, 
that  refource  being  unneceflary,  they  feldom  employ 
this  art*. 

Bees,  when  they  have  not  room  enough  for  their  ope- 
rations, augment  the  depth  of  their  honey-cells  f .  The 
female  bee,  when  the  cells  are  not  fufficiently  numerous 
to  receive  her  eggs,  lays  two  or  three  in  each  cell.  But, 
a  few  days  after,  when  the  ceils  are  increafed,  the  working 
bees  remove  all  the  fupernumerary  eggs,  and  depofit  them 
in  the  new  conftrucled  cells  J. 

When  a  wafp,  in  attempting  to  tranfport  a  dead  com- 
panion from  the  neft,  finds  the  load  too  heavy,  he  cuts 
off  its  head,  and  carries  it  out  in  two  portions  §. 

In  countries  infefted  with  monkeys,  many  birds,  which, 
in  other  climates,  build  in  bufhes  and  the  clefts  of  trees, 
fufpend  their  nefts  upon  ilender  twigs,  and,  by  this  inge- 
nious device,  elude  the  rapacity  of  their  enemies. 

The  nymphs  of  water-moths,  commonly  called  cod-bait, 
cover  themfelves,  by  means  of  gluten,  with  pieces  of 
wood,  ftraw,  fmall  ihells,  or  gravel.  It  is  neceffary  that 
they  mould  always  be  nearly  in  equilibrium  with  the 
water  in  which  they  live.  To  accomplim  this  purpofe, 
when  their  habitations  are  too  heavy,  they  add  a  piece  of 
wood,  when  too  light,  a  bit  of  gravel  ||.  T  h  d 

*  Gazette  Liter,  torn.  3.  pag.  228.     S.         t  Reaumur,  torn.  10.  pag.  29.    S. 
t  Ibid.  pag.  240.     S.  §  Ibid.  torn.  11.  pag.  241.     S. 

1  Bonnet,  torn.  4.  peg.  209. Reaumur,  torn.  5.  pag.  215.     S. 


OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.         143 

I  had  a  cat  that  frequented  a  clofet,  the  door  of  which 
was  fattened  by  a  common  iron  latch.  A  window  was 
fituated  near  the  door.  When  the  door  was  Ihut,  the 
cat  gave  herfelf  no  uneafmefs.  As  foon  as  (he  tired  of 
her  confinement,  fhe  mounted  on  the  fole  of  the  window, 
and  with  her  paw  dexteroufly  lifted  the  latch  and  came 
out.  This  practice  fhe  continued  for  years. 

Thefe  examples,  I  hope,  are  fufficient. 

III.  The  third  clafs  comprehends  all  thofe  Inftincls  which  are 
improveable  by  experience  and  obfervation. 

THE  fuperiority  of  man  over  the  other  animals  feems 
to  depend  chiefly  on  the  great  number  of  inftincts  with 
which  his  mind  is  endowed.  Traces  of  every  inftinct  he 
poflefles  are  difcoverable  in  the  brute  creation.  But  no 
particular  fpecies  enjoys  the  whole.  On  the  contrary, 
moft  animals  are  limited  to  a  fmall  number.  This  appears 
to  be  the  reafon  why  the  inftincts  of  brutes  are  ftronger, 
and  more  fleady  in  their  operation,  than  thofe  of  man. 
A  being  actuated  by  a  great  variety  of  motives  mud  ne- 
ceflarily  reafon,  or,  in  other  words,  hefitate  in  his  choice. 
Its  conduct,  therefore,  mufl  often  waver  ;  and  he  will 
have  the  appearance  of  being  inferior  to  another  creature 
who  is  ftimulated  to  action  by  a  fmaller  number  of  mo- 
tives. Man,  accordingly,  has  been  confidered  as  the  moft 
vacillant  and  inconfiflent  of  all  animals.  The  remark  is 
juft ;  but,  inftead  of  a  cenfure,  it  is  an  encomium  on  the 
fpecies.  The  actions  of  a  dog,  or  a  monkey,  for  the  fame 
reafon,  are  more  various,  whimfical,  and  uncertain,  than 
thofe  of  a  fheep  or  a  cow. 

Moft  human  inftincts  receive  improvement  from  expe- 
rience and  obfervation,  and  are  capable  of  a  thoufand 
modifications.  This  is  another  fource  of  man's  fuperio- 
rity over  the  brutes.  When  we  are  ftimulated  by  a  par- 
ticular inftinct,  inftead  of  inftantly  obeying  the  impulfe, 
another  inftinct  arifes  in  oppofition,  creates  hefitatioh, 
and  often  totally  extinguifhes  the  original  motive  to  ac- 
tion. The  inftinct  of  fear  is  daily  counteracted  by  am- 
bition or  refentment ;  and,  in  fome  minds,  fear  is  too 

powerful 


,44  T  H  E     PHILOSOPHY 

powerful  for  refentment,  or  any  other  inftinct  we  poffefs. 
The  inftinct  of  anger  is  often  reflrained  by  the  apprehen- 
fion  of  danger,  by  the  fenfe  of  propriety,  by  contempt, 
and  even  by  compafiion.  Sympathy,  which  is  one  of  our 
molt  amiable  inftincts,  frequently  yields  to  anger,  ambi- 
tion, and  other  motives.  The  inftinct  or  fenfe  of  morality 
is  too  often  thwarted  by  ambition,  refentment,  love,  fear, 
and  feverul  of  what  I  call  modified  or  compounded  in- 
ftincts, iuch  as  avarice,  envy,  &c. 

The  following  are  examples  of  modified,  compounded, 
or  extended  inftincts. 

Superltition  is  the  inftinct  of  fear  extended  to  imagi- 
nary objects  of  terror. 

Devotion  is  an  extenfion  of  the  inftincl:  of  love  to  the 
Fir  it  Caufe,  or  Author  of  the  Univerfe. 

Reverence  or  refpect  for  eminent  characters  is  a  fpecies 
of  devotion. 

Avarice  is  the  inftincl  of  love  directed  to  an  improper 
object. 

Hope  is  the  inftinct  of  love  directed  to  future  good. 
Envy  is  compounded  of  love,  avarice,  ambition,  and  fear. 
Benevolence  is  the  inftinct  of  love  diffufed  over  all  ani- 
mated beings. 

Sympathy  is  the  inftinct  of  fear  transferred  to  another 
perfon,  and  reflected  back  upon  ourfelves. 

In  this  manner,  all  the  modified,  compounded,  or  ex- 
tended paflions  and  propenfities  of  the  human  mind,  may 
be  traced  back  to  their  original  inftincts. 

The  inftincts  of  brutes  are  likewife  improved  by  ob- 
fervation  and  experience.  A  young  dog,  like  a  child, 
requires  both  time  and  art  to  unfold  and  perfect  his  na- 
tural inftincts.  If  neglected  by  man,  he  learns  from  his 
companions  how  to  ad  in  particular  fituations  :  But,  when 
he  enjoys  both  thefe  fources  of  information,  his  talents 
are  improved  to  a  degree  that  often  excites  our  aftonim- 
ment.  The  fame  remark  applies  to  all  docile  animals,  as 
the  elephant,  the  horfe,  the  camel,  &c.  Every  man's  re- 
collection will  fupply  him  with  many  examples  of  the 
improveable  talents  of  brutes  5  and,  therefore,  it  is  un- 
Jieceflary  to  be  more  explicit. 

Having 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         145 

Having  exhibited  inftances  of  pure  inftincl,  of  iriftincls 
which  accommodate  themfelves  to  peculiar  circumftances 
and  fituations,  and  of  inftincls  improveable  by  obfervation 
and  experience,  I  mall  now  hazard  a  few  remarks. 

From  the  examples  I  have  given,  it  appeals  that  inftinct 
is  an  original  quality  of  mind,  which,  in  many  animals, 
may  be  improved,  modified,  and  extended,  by  experience  ; 
that  fome  inftincls  are  coeval  with  birth  ;  and  that  others, 
as  fear,  anger,  the  principle  of  imitation,  and  the  power 
of  reafoning,  or  balancing  motives,  are  gradually  unfold- 
ed, according  to  the  exigencies  of  the  animal.  One  of 
the  ftrongefl  inftin&s  appears  not  till  near  the  age  of  puber- 
ty ;  but,  by  bad  example,  and  improper  lituations,  this  in- 
ftinclive  defire  is  often  prematurely  excited.  The  minds 
of  brutes,  as  well  as  thofe  of  men,  have  original  quali- 
ties, deftined  for  the  prefervation  of  the  individual,  and 
the  continuation  of  the  fpecies.  The  calling  forth  of 
thefe  qualities  is  not  inftincl,  but  the  exertion  or  energy 
of  inftincl.  Inftincls  exift  before  they  ad.  What  man 
or  brutes  learn  by  experience,  though  this  experience  be 
founded  on  inftincl,  cannot  with  propriety  be  called  in- 
finitive knowledge,  but  knowledge  derived  from  expe- 
rience and  obfervation.  Inftincl:  fhould  be  limited  to  fuch 
aclions  as  every  individual  of  a  fpecies  exerts  without  the 
aid  either  of  experience  or  imitation.  Hence  inftincl:  may 
be  defined,  c  Every  original  quality  of  mind  which  pro- 

*  duces  particular  feelings  or  actions,  when  the  proper 

*  objects  are  prefented  to  it/     Thefe  qualities  or  inftincls 
vary  in  particular  fpecies.  Some  are  endowed  with  many, 
and  others  with  few.     In  fome  they  are  ftronger,  in  others 
weaker ;  and  their  ftrength  or  weaknefs  feems  to  be  ex- 
aclly  proportioned  to  their  number.     The  difference  of 
talents  among  men  who  have  had  the  fame  culture,  arifes 
from  a  bluntnefs,  or  abfolute  deprivation,  of  fome  origi- 
nal or  modified  inftincls.    Tafte,  or  love  of  particular  ob- 
jecls,  whether  animated,  inanimated,  or  artificial,  is  in 
fome  men  fo  obtufe,  that  we  often  fay  it  is  entirely  want- 
ing.   Infedls  have  fewer  inftincls  than  men  or  quadrupeds  ; 
but  the  exertions  of  infecls  are  fo  uniform  and  fteady, 
that  they  excite  the  admiration  of  every  beholder. 

T  Senfation 


1 46  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

Senfation  implies  a  fentient  principle,  or  mind.  What- 
ever feels,  therefore,  is  mind.  Of  courfe,  the  loweft  fpe- 
cies  of  animals  are  endowed  with  mind  :  But,  the  minds 
of  animals  have  very  different  powers  ;  and  thefe  powers 
are  expreffed  by  peculiar  addons.  The  ftrudure  of  their 
bodies  is  uniformly  adapted  to  the  powers  of  their  minds. 
We  never  fee  a  mature  animal  attempting  actions  which 
Nature  has  not  enabled  it  to  perform,  by  beftowing  on  it 
proper  inflruments.  A  bee  collects  the  materials  of  honey 
and  wax,  but  attempts  not  to  gnaw  rotten  wood,  like  the 
wafp. — Neither  does  peculiarity  of  ftruchire  prompt  the 
actions  of  brutes.  Calves  pufli  with  their  heads  long  be- 
fore their  horns  are  grown.  This,  and  fimilar  examples, 
mow,  that  the  inftincts  of  brutes  exiil  previous  to  the  ex- 
panfion  of  thofe  inftruments  which  Nature  intended  they 
fhould  employ. 

This  view  of  inftinct  is  fimple,  removes  every  objection 
to  the  exiftence  of  mind  in  irutes,  and  unfolds  all  their 
actions,  by  referring  them  to  motives  perfectly  fimilar  to 
thofe  by  which  man  is  a&uated.  There  is,  perhaps,  a 
greater  difference  between  the  mental  powers  of  fome  ani- 
mals than  between  thofe  of  man  and  the  moft  fagacious 
brutes.  Inftincts  may  be  confidered  as  fo  many  internal 
fenfes,  of  which  fome  animals  have  a  greater,  and  others 
a  fmaller  number.  Thefe  fenfes,  in  different  fpecies,  are 
likewife  more  or  lefs  ductile  ;  and  the  animals  poffeffing 
them  are,  of  courfe,  more  or  lefs  fufceptible  of  improv- 
ing, and  of  acquiring  knowledge* 

The  notion  that  animals  are  machines,  is  perhaps  too 
abfurd  to  merit  refutation.  Though  no  animal  is  endow- 
ed with  mental  powers  equal  to  thofe  of  man,  yet  there 
is  not  a  faculty  of  the  human  mind,  but  evident  marks 
of  its  exiftence  are  to  be  found  in  particular  animals. 
Senfes,  memory,  imagination,  the  principle  of  imitation, 
curiofity,  cunning,  ingenuity,  devotion,  or  refpect  for  fu- 
periors,  gratitude,  are  all  difcoverable  in  the  brute  crea- 
tion. Neither  is  art  denied  to  them.  They  build  in  vari- 
ous fliles  ;  they  dig ;  they  wage  war  ;  they  extract  pecu- 
liar fubftances  from  water,  from  plants,  from  the  earth ; 
they  modulate  their  voices  fo  as  to  communicate  their 

wants, 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  147 

wants,  their  fentiments,  their  pleafures  and  pains,  their 
apprehenfions  of  danger,  and  their  profpe&s  of  future 
good.  Every  fpecies  has  its  own  language,  which  is  per- 
fe&ly  underftood  by  the  individuals.  They  alk  and  give 
affiftance  to  each  other.  They  fpeak  of  their  neceflities  ; 
and  this  branch  of  their  language  is  more  or  lefs  extended, 
in  proportion  to  the  number  of  their  wants.  Geftures 
and  inarticulate  founds  are  the  figns  of  their  thoughts. 
It  fs  neceflary  that  the  fame  fentiments  mould  produce  the 
fame  founds  and  the  fame  movements ;  and,  confequent- 
ly,  each  individual  of  a  fpecies  muil  have  the  fame  orga- 
nization. Birds  and  quadrupeds,  accordingly,  are  inca- 
pable of  holding  difcourfe  to  each  other,  or  communicat- 
ing the  ideas  and  feelings  they  poflefs  in  common.  The 
language  of  gefture  prepares  for  that  of  articulation  ;  and 
fome  animals  are  capable  of  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  ar- 
ticulate founds.  They  firft  judge  of  our  thoughts  by  our 
geftures  ;  and  afterwards  acquire  the  habit  of  connecting 
thefe  thoughts  with  the  language  in  which  we  exprefs 
them.  It  is  in  this  manner  that  the  elephant  and  the  dog- 
learn  to  obey  the  commands  of  their  mailers. 

Infants  are  exactly  in  the  fame  condition  with  brutes. 
They  underftand  fome  of  our  geftures  and  words  long 
before  they  can  articulate.  They  difcover  their  wants  by 
geftures  and  inarticulate  founds,  the  meaning  of  which 
the  nurfe  learns  by  experience.  Different  infants  have 
different  modes  of  exprefling  their  wants.  This  is  the 
reafon  why  nurfes  know  the  intentions  of  infants,  though 
they  are  perfectly  unintelligible  to  flrangers.  When  an 
infant,  accordingly,  is  transferred  from  one  nurfe  to  ano- 
ther, the  former  inftructs  the  latter  in  the  geftures  and 
inarticulate  language  of  the  child. 

The. idea  of  a  machine  implies  a  felect  combination  of 
the  common  properties  of  matter.  The  regularity  of  its 
movements  is  a  proof  that  they  are  totally  diftindl:  from 
animal  or  fpontaneous  motion.  A  machine  has  nothing 
analogous  to  fenfation,  which  is  the  loweft  chara&eriftic 
of  an  animal.  An  animated  machine^  .therefore,  is  an 
abfurd  abufe  of  terms.  It  confounds  what  Nature  has 
diftinguiihed  in  the  moft  unambiguous  manner.  The  in- 

ftili&s 


!48  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

ftincts  of  brutes,  are,  in  general,  flronger,  and  lefs  fub- 
je£t  to  reftraint,  than  thofe  of  man.  The  reafon  is  plain  : 
They  have  not  an  equal  number  of  inftin&s  to  curb, 
counterbalance,  or  moderate  their  motives  to  particular 
actions.  Hence  they  have  often  the  appearance  of  acting 
by  mere  impulfe ;  and  this  circumftance  has  led  fome 
philofophers  to  confider  brutes  as  machines.  But  they 
reflect  not  that  children,  favages,  and  ignorant  men,  a£t 
nearly  in  the  fame  manner.  It  is  fociety  and  culture 
which  foften  and  moderate  the  paffions  and  actions  of 
men,  as  well  as  of  thofe  of  docile  animals. 

Brutes,  like  men,  learn  to  fee  objects  in  their  proper 
pofition,  to  judge  of  diftances  and  heights,  and  of  hurt- 
ful, pleafureable,  or  indifferent  bodies.  Without  fome 
portion  of  reafon,  therefore,  they  could  never  acquire 
the  faculty  of  making  a  proper  ufe  of  their  fenfes.  A 
dog,  though  prefled  with  hunger,  will  not  feize  a  piece 
of  meat  in  prefence  of  his  mailer,  unlefs  it  be  given  to 
him  :  -But,  with  his  eyes,  his  movements,  and  his  voice, 
he  makes  the  moft  humble  and  expreffive  petition.  If 
this  balancing  of  motives  be  not  reafoning,  I  know  not 
by  what  other  name  it  can  be  called. 

Animals,  recently  after  birth,  know  not  how  to  avoid 
danger.  Neither  can  they  make  a  proper  ufe  of  their 
members.  But  experience  foon  teaches  them  what  is 
pleafant  and  what  is  painful,  what  objects  are  hurtful  and 
what  falutary.  A  young  cat,  or  a  dog,  who  has  had  no 
experience  of  leaping  from  a  height,  will,  without  hefi- 
tation,  precipitate  itfelf  from  the  top  of  a  high  wall. 
But,,  after  perceiving  that  certain  heights  are  hurtful,  and 
others  inoffenfive,  the  animal  learns  to  make  the  diftinc- 
tion,  and  never  afterwards  can  be  prevailed  upon  to  leap 
from  a  height  which  it  knows  will  be  productive  of  pain. 

Young  animals  examine  every  objecl  they  meet  with. 
In  this  investigation  they  employ  all  their  organs.  The 
firfl  periods  of  their  life  are  dedicated  to  Trudy.  When 
they  run  about,  and  make  frolickfome  gambols,  it  is  Na- 
ture fporting  with  them  for  their  inftruction.  In  this 
manner  they  improve  their  faculties  and  organs,  and  ac- 
quire an  intimate  knowledge  of  the  objeds  which  fur- 
round 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         149 

round  them.  Men  who,  from  peculiar  circumftances, 
have  been  prevented  from  mingling  with  companions, 
and  engaging  in  the  different  amuiements  and  exercifes 
of  youth,  are  always  awkward  in  their  movements,  can- 
not ufe  their  organs  with  eafe  or  dexterity,  and  often  con- 
tinue, during  life,  ignorant  of  the  mod  common  objects. 
From  the  above  fads  and  reafoning,  it  feems  to  be 
apparent,  that  inftin&s  are  original  qualities  of  mind  ;  that 
every  animal  is  poffeffed  of  fome  of  thefe  qualities  ;  that 
the  intelligence  and  refources  of  animals  are  proportioned 
to  the  number  of  inftincls  with  which  their  minds  are 
endowed  ;  that  all  animals  are,  in  fome  meafure,  rational 
beings  ;  and  that  the  dignity  and  fuperiority  of  the  human 
intellect  are  necefTary  refults,  not  of  the  conformation  of 
our  bodies,  but  of  the  great  variety  of  inftin&s  which 
Nature  has  been  pleafed  to  confer  on  the  fpecies. 


CHAPTER     VI. 

Of  the  Senfes. 


NO  animal  of  which  we  have  any  knowledge  is  endow- 
ed with  more  than  the  five  external  fenfes  of  fmell- 
ing,  tafting,  hearing,  touch,  and  feeing ;  and  no  animal, 
however  imperfect,  is  deflitute  of  the  whole.  Without 
organs  of  fenfation,  in  a  fmaller  or  greater  number, 
animal  or  intellectual  exiftence  is  to  us  an  inconceivable 
idea.  Hence  the  notion  of  the  ancients,  and  of  a  very 
few  moderns,  that  this  earth,  as  well  as  all  the  heavenly 
bodies,  are  intelligent  beings,  though  they  have  not  the 
veftige  of  any  instrument  of  fenfation,  or  of  any  thing 
analogous  to  our  ideas  of  animation,  except  mechanical 
motion,  is  too  abfurd  even  to  be  ferioufly  mentioned. 

Upon  this  interefling  fubje£t,  as  it  comprehends  every 
fource  of  information,  and  every  motive  to  action  in  man, 

as 


1  5o  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

as  well  as  in  the  inferior  animals,  it  is  not  furprifmg  that 
fo  much  has  been  written,  and  that  fo  many  different  theo- 
ries have  been  invented,  and  fubmitted  to  public  infpecti- 
on.  Some  of  thefe  theories  fhall  be  taken  notice  of  in 
a  curfory  manner,  and  others,  as  unworthy  of  attention, 
fhall  be  paffed  over  in  filence. 

Our  obfervations  on  the  different  inftruments  of  fenfc- 
tion  fhall  proceed  in  the  following  order,  namely,  of  the 
fenfes  of  fmelling,  of  tatting,  of  hearing,  of  touch,  and 
of  feeing.  In  general,  it  may  be  remarked,  that  all 
fenfation  is  conveyed  to  the  mind  by  an  unknown  influ- 
ence of  the  nerves.  If  the  optic,  olfactory,  or  any  nerve 
diflributed  over  an  organ  of  fenfation,  be  cut,  or  rendered 
paralytic,  the  animal  inftantly  lofes  that  particular  fenfe. 
This  is  a  fact  univerfally  eftablifhed  by  experiment.  But 
that  the  nerves,  which  are  perfectly  fimilar  in  every  part 
of  the  body,  mould,  when  diftributed  over  the  eye,  the 
ear,  the  tongue,  the  nofe,  convey  to  the  mind  feelings 
fo  different,  is  the  mod  myfterious  part  of  this  fubject. 
When  M.  de  Bonnet  tells  us,  that  every  organ  of  fenfe 
probably  confifts  of  fibres  fpecifically  different  ;  and  that 
thefe  fibres  are  particular  fenfes  endowed  with  a  peculiar 
manner  of  acting,  correfponding  to  the  perceptions  they 
excite  in  the  mind  y  —  he  means  to  reafon  j  but  he  does 
no  more  than  give  a  circumlocution  for  the  fad. 


OF     S.MEL  LING. 

IN  man,  and  many  other  animals,  the  organ  by  which 
the  fenfe  of  fmelling  is  conveyed  to  the  mind  has  received 
the  general  appellation  of  nofe,  or  nqftrils.  The  more  im- 
mediate inftrument  of  this  fenfation  is  a  foft,  vafcular, 
porous  membrane,  covered  writh  numerous  papillas,  and 
is  known  by  the  name  of  membrana  pituitaria,  or  membrana 
Schneideriana.  This  membrane  is  totally  covered  with 
infinite  ramifications  and  convolutions  of  the  olfactory 
nerves.  Thefe  nerves  are  almofl  naked,  and  expofed  to 
the  action  of  the  air  which  paries  through  the  nofe  in 
performing  the  fun&ion  of  refpiration,  But  Nature,  ever 

attentive 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         151 

attentive  to  the  eafe  and  convenience  of  her  creatures, 
has  furnifhed  the  noftrils  with  a  number  of  glands,  or 
fmall  arteries,  which  fecrete  a  thick  infipid  mucus.  By 
this  mucus,  the  olfactory  nerves  are  defended  from  the 
action  of  the  air,  and  from  the  painful  ftiniuli  of  acrid 
odours. 

The  odours  perceived  by  fmelling  are  extremely  various. 
Some  of  them  convey  to  us  the  mod  delightful  and  re- 
frefhing  fenfations,  and  others  are  painful,  noxious,  and  dif- 
gufting.  All  bodies  in  Nature,  whether  folid  or  fluid, 
whether  animated  or  inanimated,  continually  fend  forth 
to  the  air  certain  effluvia  or  emanations  from  their  ref- 
pe&ive  fubflances.  Thefe  effluvia  float  in  the  atmofphere, 
and  act  upon  the  olfactory  nerves  of  different  animals, 
and  fometimes  of  different  individuals  of  the  fame  fpecies, 
in  fuch  a  manner  as  to  produce  very  different  fenfations.. 
What  is  pleafant  to  the  noftrils  of  one  animal  is  highly 
offenfive  to  thofe  of  another.  Brute  animals  felect  their 
food  chiefly  by  employing  the  fenfe  of  fmelling,  and  it 
feldom  deceives  them.  They  eafily  diftinguim  noxious 
from  falutary  food  ;  and  they  carefully  avoid  the  one, 
and  ufe  the  other  for  nourifhment.  The  fame  thing 
happens  with  regard  to  the  drink  of  animals.  A  cow, 
when  it  can  be  obtained,  always  repairs  to  the  cleared 
and  frefheft  flreams  ;  but  a  horfe,  from  forne  inftinctive 
impulfe,  uniformly  raifes  the  mud  with  his  feet,  and  ren- 
ders the  water  impure,  before  he  drinks. 

In  the  felection  of  food,  men  are  greatly  affifted,  even 
in  the  moft  luxurious  ftate  of  fociety,  by  the  fenfe  of 
fmelling.  By  fmelling  we  often  reject  food  as  noxious, 
and  will  not  rifk  the  other  teft  of  rafting.  Victuals  which 
have  a  putrid  fmell,  as  equally  oflfenfive  to  our  noftrils  as 
hurtful  to  our  conftitutions,  we  avoid  with  abhorrence  ; 
but  we  are  allured  to  eat  fubftances  which  have  a  grateful 
and  favoury  odour.  The  more  frequent  and  more  acute 
difcernment  of  brutes  in  the  exercife  of  this  fenfe,  is 
entirely  owing  to  their  freedom,  and  to  their  ufmg  natural 
productions  alone.  But  men  in  fociety,  by  the  arts  of 
cookery,  by  the  unnatural  aflemblage  of  twenty  ingredi- 
ents in  oae  difh,  blunt,  corrupt,  and  deceive  both  their 

fenfes 


152  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

fenfes  of  fmelling  and  tatting.  Were  we  in  the  fame  na- 
tural condition  as  the  brutes,  our  fenfe  of  fmelling  would 
enable  us  to  diftinguifh,  with  equal  certainty,  noxious 
from  Ailutary  food,  Brutes,  as  well  as  men,  prefer  par- 
ticuH;  foods  to  others.  This  may  be  confidered  as  a 
fpecies  of  luxury  ;  but  it  mould  likewife  be  confidered, 
that  all  the  articles  they  ufe  are  either  animal  or  vegetable 
fubftances  in  a  natural  flate,  neither  converted  into  a  thou- 
fand  forms  and  qualities  by  the  operation  of  fire  and 
water,  nor  having  their  favour  exalted  by  ftimulatmg 
condiments.  Domeftic  animals  are  nearly  in  the  fame 
condition  with  luxurious  men.  A  pampered  dog  muffs 
and  rejects  many  kinds  of  food,  which,  in  a  natural  ftate, 
he  would  devour  with  eagernefs. 

It  is  not  unworthy  of  remark,  that,  in  all  animals,  the 
organs  of  fmelling  and  of  tafting  are  uniformly  fituated 
very  near  each  other.  Here  the  intention  of  Nature  is 
evident.  The  vicinity  of  thefe  two  fenfes  forms  a  double 
guard  in  the  fele6lion  of  food.  Were  they  placed  in  dif- 
tant  parts  of  the  body,  they  could  not  fo  readily  give 
mutual  aid  to  one  another. 

But  alliilance  in  the  choice  of  food  is  not  the  only  ad- 
vantage that  men  and  other  animals  derive  from  the  fenfe 
of  fmelling.  Every  body  in  nature,  whether  animal,  or 
mineral,  when  expofed  to  the  air,  continually  fends  forth 
emanations,  or  effluvia,  of  fuch  extreme  fubtilty,  that 
no  eye  can  perceive  them.  Thefe  effluvia,  or  volatile 
particles,  diffufe  themfelves  through  the  air,  and  mod  of 
them  are  recognifed,  by  the  organ  of  frrielling,  to  be 
either  agreeable  or  difagreeable.  To  give  fome  idea  of 
the  inconceivable  minutenefs  of  thefe  particles,  and  of  the 
amazing  fenfibility  of  the  noftrils  of  animals,  the  odour 
of  n/jfk  has  been  known  to  fill  a  large  fpace  for  feveral 
years  without  lofing  any  perceptible  part  of  its  weight. 
Thus,  the  air  we  breathe  is  perpetually  impregnated  with 
an  infinity  of  different  particles  which  ftimulate  the  ol- 
factory nerves,  and  give  rife  to  the  fenfation  of  fmell. 
When  our  fenfes  are  not  vitiated  by  unnatural  habits,  they 
are  not  only  faithful  monitors  of  danger,  but  convey  to 
us  the  rnoft  exquifite  pleafures.  Even  the  fenfe  of  fmell- 
ing 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          153 

ing  is  always  productive  either  of  pleafure  or  pain.  The 
fragrance  of  a  rofe,  and  of  many  other  flowers,  is  not 
only  pleafant,  but  gives  a  refrefhing  and  delightful  fti- 
mulus  to  the  whole  fyftem,  and  may  be  confukred  as  a 
fpecies  of  wholefome  nourifhment ;  while  the  odours  pro- 
ceeding from  hemlock,  and  from  many  other  noxious  ve- 
getable, animal,  and  mineral  fubflances,  are  highly  offen- 
five  to  our  noftrils.  Hence  we  are  naturally  compelled  to 
embrace  the  one  clafs  of  fenfations  and  to  avoid  the  other. 

Some  animals,  as  the  dog,  the  fox,  the  raven,  &c.  are 
endowed  with  a  moft  exquifite  ferife  of  fmelling.  A  dog 
fcents  various  kinds  of  game  at  confiderable  diftances  ; 
and,  if  the  fad  were  not  confirmed  by  daily  experience, 
it  could  hardly  gain  credit,  that  he  can  trace  the  odour 
of  his  matter's  foot  through  all  th©  winding  ftreets  of  a 
populous  city.  If  we  judge  from  our  own  feelings,  this 
extreme  fenfibility  in  the  nofe  of  a  dog  is  to  us  perfectly 
incomprehenfible. 

The  fenfe  of  fmelling,  like  that  of  fome  other  fenfes, 
may  be  perverted  or  corrupted  by  habit.  The  muffing, 
chewing,  and  fmoaking  tobacco,  though  at  firft  difagree- 
able,  become,  by  the  power  of  habit,  not  only  pleafant, 
but  almofl  indifpenfible.  The  fame  remark  is  applicable 
to  the  practice  of  fwallowing  ardent  fpirits,  the  moft 
deleterious  of  all  poifons,  becaufe  the  mod  extenfively 
employed.  How  the  natural  itate  of  the  nerves,  and  of 
the  fenfations  conveyed  by  them,  mould  be  fo  completely 
changed,  we  are  totally  ignorant.  The  conftitution  of 
the  nerves  often  varies  in  different  individuals  of  the  fame 
fpecies.  An  odour  which  is  difguttful  to  one  man  is 
highly  grateful  to  another.  I  knew  a  gentleman  who  was 
in  the  daily  habit  of  lighting  and  putting  out  candles,  that 
he  might  enjoy  the  pleafure  of  their  fmell.  Few  men, 
I  fuppofe,  would  envy  him. 


U  OF 


i54  T  H  E>  P  H  I  L  O  S  O  P  H  Y 


OF     TASTING. 

THE  tongue  and  palate  are  the  great  mftruments  of 
this  fenfation.  With  much  wifdom  and  propriety,  the 
organ  of  tafle  is  fituated  in  fuch  a  manner  as  enables  it  to 
be  a  guardian  to  the  alimentary  canal,  and  to  afrift  the 
oigan  of  fmell  in  diftinguifhing  falutary  from  noxious 
food.  The  tongue,  like  the  other  inflruments  of  fenfa- 
tion, is  amply  fupplied  with  nerves.  The  terminations  of 
thefe  nerves  appear  on  the  furface  of  the  tongue  in  the 
form  of  papilla,  or  minute  nipples,  which  are  always 
erected  on  the  application  of  fapid  or  ftimulating  fubftan- 
ces.  This  elevation  and  extenfion  of  the  papillae,  by 
bringing  larger  portions  of  the  nerves  into  contact  with 
the  Jubilances  applied  to  the  tongue,  give  additional 
ftrength  to  the  fenfation,  and  enable  us  to  judge  with 
greater  accuracy  concerning  their  nature  and  qualities. 
Befide  the  nervous  papillae,  the  tongue  is  perpetually 
moiftened  with  faliva,  a  liquor  which,  though  infipid  it- 
felf,  is  one  great  caufe  of  all  taftes.  The  faliva  of  ani- 
mals is  a  very  powerful  folvent.  Every  fubftance  applied 
to  the  tongue  is  partially  diflblved  by  the  faliva  'before 
the  fenfation  of  tafte  is  excited.  When  the  tongue  is 
rendered  dry  by  difeafe,  or  any  other  caufe,  the  fenfe  of 
tafte  is  either  vitiated  or  totally  annihilated. 

In  fame  men,  the  fenfe  of  tafte  is  fo  blunt,  that  they 
cannot  diftinguifh,  with  any  degree  of  accuracy,  the  dif- 
ferent fpecies  of  that  fenfation.  In  others,  whether  from 
Nature  or  from  habit,  this  fenfe  is  fo  acute,  that  they  can 
perceive  the  niceft  diftinclions  in  the  favour  of  iolids  and 
of  liquids. 

The  fenfations  conveyed  to  the  mind  by  tafte,  like  thofe 
of  all  the  fenfes,  are  either  agreeable,  difagreeable,  or  in- 
different. The  pleafures  arifing  from  this  fenfe  are  not 
only  great,  but  highly  ufeful  to  every  animal.  The  fenfe 
it  felf,  however,  is  comparatively  grofs  ;  for,  in  fmelling, 
hearing,  and  feeing,  fenfations  are  excited  by  emanations 
or  undulations  proceeding  from  bodies  at  great  diftances 

from 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  155 

from  the  animals  who  perceive  them.  But,  in  tailing, 
the  object  muft  be  brought  into  actual  contact  with  the 
tongue  before  its  qualities  can  be  difcovered.  How  this 
proportionally  grofs  fenfe  mould' have  been  felecled,  and 
figuratively  applied  to  the  general  perception  of  every  thing 
beautiful  and  fublime,  whether  in  Nature  or  in  art,  it  is 
difficult  to  determine.  The  inquiry,  however,  would  not 
be  incurious,  whether  men  who  have  an  obtufe  fenfe  of 
tailing  material  fubflances  are  likewife  deficient  in  the 
perception  of  beauty  and  deformity. 

Though  the  fenfe  of  tafte  varies  in  fome  individuals, 
yet,  like  figurative  tafle,  the  jflandard  of  agreeable  and 
difagreeable,  of  pleafant  and  painful,  is  aimed  -un-iver- 
fally  difrufed  over  mankind  and  the  brute  creation.  Every 
horfe,  and  every  ox,  when  in  a  natural  fhite,  eat  and  re- 
ject the  fame  fpecies  of  food.  But,  men  in  fociety,  as 
well  as  domeflic  animals,  are  induced  by  habit,  by  necef- 
fity,  or  by  imitation,  to  acquire  a  tafle  for  many  dimes, 
and  combinations  of  fubflances,  which,  before  the  natural 
difcriminating  fenfe  is  perverted,  would  be  rejected  with 
difguft. 

Some  individuals  of  the  human  fpecies  have  an  averfion 
to  particular  kinds  of  food,  which  are  generally  agree- 
able. This  averfion  may  be  either  original  or  acquired. 
I  knew  a  child,  who,  from  the  moment  he  was  weaned, 
could  never  be  induced  to  take  milk  of  any  kind.  Thefe 
original  averfions  mud  be  afcribed  to  fome  peculiar  mo- 
dification in  the  ftructure  of  the  organ,  or  in  the  difpo- 
pofition  of  its  nerves.  But,  in  general,  difgufl  at  parti- 
cular foods  is  produced  by  furfeits,  which  injure  the 
llomach,  and  create,  in  that  exquifitely-irritable  vifcus, 
an  infuperable  antipathy  to  receive  nourimment  which 
formerly  gave  it  fo  much  uneafinefs  to  digeft. 

Brute  animals,  efpecially  thofe  which  feed  upon  herb- 
age, and  are  not  liable  to  be  corrupted  by  example  or 
neceffity,  diflinguifh  taftes  with  wonderful  accuracy.  By 
the  application  of  the  tongue,  they  inflantly  perceive 
whether  any  plant  is  falutary  or  noxious.  To  enable 
them,  amidft  a  thoufand  plants,  to  make  this  difcrimina- 

tion, 


156  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

tion,  their  nervous  papillae,  and  their  tongues,  are  pro- 
portionally much  larger  than  thofe  of  man. 


OF    HEARING. 

THE  fenfation  of  hearing  is  conveyed  to  the  mind  by 
undulations  of  air  finking  the  ear,  an  organ  of  a  very 
delicate  and  complex  ftrudure.  In  man  and  quadrupeds, 
the  external  ears  are  large,  and  provided  with  mufcles  by 
which  they  can  erecl:  and  move  them  from  fide  to  fide, 
in  order  to  catch  the  undulations  produced  in  the  air  by 
the  vibrations  of  fonorous  bodies,  or  to  diftinguifh  with 
greater  accuracy  the  fpecies  of  found,  and  the  nature 
and  fituation  of  the  animal  or  object  from  which  it  pro- 
ceeds. Though  the  human  ears,  like  thofe  of  quadru- 
peds, are  furnifhed  with  mufcles,  evidently  intended  for 
fimilar  movements,  yet,  I  know  not  for  what  reafon, 
there  is  not  one  man  in  a  million  who  has  the  power  of 
moving  his  ears.  When  we  liflen  to  a  feeble  found,  we 
are  confcious  of  an  exertion ;  but  that  exertion,  and  the 
motions  produced  by  it,  are  confined  to  the  internal  parts 
of  the  organ. 

The  canals  or  paffages  to  the  internal  parts  of  the  ear 
are  cylindrical,  fomewhat  contorted,  and  become  gradu- 
ally fmaller  till  they  reach  the  membrana  tympani,  which 
covers  what  is  called  the  drum  of  the  ear.  This  mem- 
brane, which  is  extremely  fenfible,  when  acted  upon  by 
undulations  of  air,  however  excited,  conveys,  by  means 
of  a  complex  apparatus  of  bones,  nerves,  &c.  the  fen- 
fation of  found  to  the  brain  or  fentient  principle. 

That  air  is  the  medium  by  which  all  founds  are  propa- 
gated, has  been  eflablifhed  by  repeated  experiments.  The 
found  of  a  bell,  fufpended  in  the  receiver  of  an  air-pump, 
gradually  diminifhes  as  the  air  is  exhaufted,  till  it  almolfc 
entirely  ceafes  to  be  heard.  On  the  other  hand,  when 
the  quantity  of  air  is  increafed  by  a  condenfer,  the  in- 
tenfity  of  the  found  is  proportionally  augmented.  Mr. 
Haukibee,  in  a  paper  publifhed  in  the  Philofophical  Tranf- 
actions,  has  proved,  that  founds  actually  produced  cannot 

be 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         157 

be  tranfmitted  through  a  vacuum,  or  a  fpace  deprived  of 
air.  c  I  took,'  fays  he,  c  a  ftrong  receiver,  armed  with  a 
<  brafs  hoop  at  the  bottom,  in  which  I  included  a  bell  as 

*  large  as  it  could  well  contain.     This  receiver  I  fcrewed 
'  flrongly  down  to  a  brafs  plate  with  a  wet  leather  be- 

*  tween,  and  it  was   full   of  common  air,  which  could 
c  nowife  make  its  efcape.     Thus  fecured,  it  was  fet  on 
c  the  pump,  where  it  was  covered  with  another  large  re- 
6  ceiver.     In  this  manner,  the  air  contained  between  the 
'  outward  and  inward  receivers  was  exhaufled.    Now  here 
c  I  was  fure,  when  the  clapper  mould  be  made  to  ftrike 

*  the  bell,  there  would  be  actually  found  produced  in  the 
c  inward  receiver ;  the  air  in  which  was  of  the  fame  den- 
c  fity  as  common  air,  could  fufFer  no  alteration  by  the 
c  vacuum  on  its  outfide,  fo  ftrongly  was  it  fecured  on  all 

*  parts.     Thus,  all  being  ready  for  trial,  the  clapper  was 

*  made  to  ftrike  the  bell ;  but  I  found  that  there  was  no 
c  tranfmifTion  of  it  through  the  vacuum,  though  I  was 

*  fure  there  was  actual  found  produced  in  the  inward  re- 


ceiver.' 


To  enable  us  to  underftand  the  manner  in  which  founds 
are  propagated  through  the  air,  philoiophers  have  had 
recourfe  to  the  undulations  produced  by  a  ftone  thrown 
into  a  pond  of  ftagnating  water.  Thefe  undulations  afTume 
the  form  of  circular  waves,  which  fucceflively  proceed 
from  the  place  where  the  flone  (truck  the  water,  as  from 
a  center,  and  continually  dilate,  and  become  greater  and 
greater  as  they  recede  from  that  center,  till  they  reach 
the  banks  of  the  water,  where  they  either  vanifli  or  are 
reflected.  Now,  as  air  is  likewife  a  fluid,  fimilar  undu- 
lations, though  to  us  invifible,  are  produced  in  it  by  the 
vibrations  of  fonorous  bodies,  and  are  alfo  propagated 
to  great  diftances  in  fucceflive  waves  or  rings.  Thefe  un- 
dulations of  the  air,  when  they  come  into  contact  with 
our  organs  of  hearing,  make  fuch  a  tremulous  imprefiion 
upon  them  as  excites  in  our  minds  the  fenfation  of  found. 
This  analogy,  though  not  altogether  perfect,  is  fufficient 
to  iliuitrate  thofe  invifible  motions  of  the  air  by  which 
founds  are  conveyed  from  one  place  to  another,  and  to 

give 


158  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

give  an  idea  of  echoes,  or  reflected  undulations  of  that 
fluid. 

The  celerity  with  which  founds,  or  undulations  of  air, 
move,  has  been  exaclly  computed.  All  founds,  whether 
acute  or  grave,  ftrong  or  weak,  move  at  the  rate  of  1142 
feet  in  a  fecond  of  time.  Hence,  whenever  the  lightening 
of  thunder,  or  the  fire  of  artillery,  are  feen,  their  actual 
diftances  from  the  obferver  may  be  eafily  afcertained  by 
the  vibrations  of  a  pendulum.  This  velocity,  it  is  true, 
may  be  a  little  augmented  or  diminifhed  by  favourable 
or  by  contrary  winds,  and  by  heat  or  cold.  But  the 
difference,  even  in  high  winds,  is  fo  trilling,  that,  for 
any  ufeful  purpofe,  it  fcarcely  merits  attention. 

Infants  hear  bluntly,  becaufe  the  bones  of  their  ears 
are  foft  and  cartilaginous  ;  and,  of  courfe,  the  tremulations 
excited  in  them  by  the  motions  of  the  air  are  compara- 
tively weak.  Young  children,  accordingly,  are  extremely 
fond  of  noife.  It  roufes  their  attention,  and  conveys  to 
them  the  agreeable  fenfation  of  found  ;  but  feeble  founds 
are  not  perceived,  which  gives  infants,  like  deaf  perfons, 
the  appearance  of  inattention,  or  rather  of  ftupidity. 

The  force  or  intenfity  of  found  is  augmented  by  re- 
fie&ion  from  furrounding  bodies.  It  is  from  this  caufe 
that  the  human  voice,  or  any  other  noife,  is  always 
weaker,  and  lefs  diftinclly  heard,  in  the  open  air  than  in 
a  houfe. 

The  modifications  of  found  are  not  lefs  various  than  thofe 
of  taftes  or  odours.  The  ear  is  capable  of  diftinguifhing 
fome  hundred  tones  in  found,  and  probably  as  many  de- 
grees of  ftrength  in  the  fame  tones.  By  combining  thefe, 
many  thoufand  fimple  founds,  which  differ  either  in  tone 
or  in  ftrength,  are  perceived  and  diftinguifhed  by  the 
ear.  A  violin,  a  flute,  a  French-horn,  may  each  of  them 
give  the  fame  tone ;  but  the  ear  eafily  makes  the  diftinc- 
tion.  The  immenfe  variety  of  fenfations,  arifing  from 
the  organs  of  fmelling,  of  tailing,  and  of  hearing,  enables 
animals  to  judge  concerning  the  nature  and  fituation  of 
external  objecls.  By  habit  we  learn  to  know  the  bodies 
from  which  particular  ipecies  of  founds  prcceed.  Pre- 
vious to  all  experience,  we  could  not  diftinguifh  whether 

a  found 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  159 

a  found  came  from  the  right  or  the  left,  from  above  or 
below,  from  a  greater  or  a  imaller  diflance,  or  whether  it 
was  the  found  of  a  coach,  of  a  drum,  of  a  bell,  or  of 
an  animal.  By  catching  cold,  I  once  had  a  temporary 
deafnefs  in  my  left  ear.  I  was  ftirprifed  to  find  that  I  had 
loft  the  faculty  of  perceiving  the  iituation  from  which 
founds  proceeded.  If  a  dog  barked  on  the  left,  I  thought 
the  noife  came  from  the  right.  This  circumflance  excited 
my  curiofity :  But,  upon  recollection,  I  knew  that  my 
left  ear  was  deaf;  and  that  every  found  I  heard  was  per- 
ceived folely  by  the  right ;  and,  confequently,  I  difcovered 
the  caufe  of  the  deception. 

Hearing  enables  us  to  perceive  all  the  agreeable  fenfa- 
tions  conveyed  to  our  minds  by  the  melody  and  harmony 
of  founds.  This,  to  man  at  leaft,  is  a  great  fource  of 
pleafure  and  of  innocent  amufement.  But  fome  men  are 
almofl  totally  deftitute  of  the  faculty  of  diftinguifhing 
mulical  founds,  and  of  perceiving  thofe  delightful  and 
diA'erfified  feelings  excited  by  the  various  combinations 
of  mufical  tones.  Mod  men  derive  pleafure  from  parti- 
cular fpecies  of  mufic.  But,  a  mufical  ear,  in  a  reflricted 
fenfe,  is  by  no  means  a  general  qualification.  An  ear 
for  mufic,  however,  though  not  to  be  acquired  by  fludy, 
when  the  faculty  itfelf  is  wanting,  may  be  highly  impro- 
ved by  habit  and  culture.  Buffon,  after  examining  a 
number  of  perfons  who  had  no  ear  for  mufic,  fays,  that 
every  one  of  them  heard  worfe  in  one  ear  than  in  the 
other  ;  and  afcribes  their  inability  of  diftinguifhing  mu- 
fical expreffion  to  that  defect.  But  a  mufical  ear  feems 
to  have  no  dependence  on  acutenefs  or  bluntnefs  of  hear- 
ing, whether  in  one  or  in  both  ears.  There  are  many 
examples  of  people  who  may  be  faid  to  be  half  deaf,  and 
yet  are  both  fond  of  mufic,  and  ikilful  practitioners.  An 
ear  for  mufic,  like  a  genius  for  painting  or  poetry,  is  a 
gift  of  Nature,  and  is  born  with  the  poflefibr. 

Befide  the  innumerable  pleafures  we  derive  from  mufic 
and  agreeable  founds,  the  extenfion  and  improvement  of 
artificial  language  muft  be  confidered  as  objects  of  the 
greateft  importance  to  the  human  race.  Without  the 
fenfe  of  hearing,  mankind  would  forever  have  remained 
*  mute. 


160  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

mute.  I  mention  artificial,  or  improved,  language,  becaufe, 
from  a  thoufand  obfervations  which  every  perfon  muft 
have  made,  it  is  perfectly  apparent,  that,  if  deftitute  of 
a  natural  language,  neither  man  nor  the  brute  creation  * 
could  poflibly  have  exiiled  and  continued  their  fpecies. 
As  brutes,  without  information  or  experience,  are  capa- 
ble of  communicating  to  each  other,  by  particular  founds 
and  geftures,  their  pleafures  and  pains,  their  wants  and 
defires,  it  would  be  the  higheft  abiurdity  to  fuppofe  that 
the  great  Creator  Ihould  have  denied  to  man,  the  nobleft 
animal  that  inhabits  this  globe,  the  fame  indifpenfible 
privilege.  Without  a  bafis  there  can  be  no  fabric.  With- 
out a  natural  no  artificial  language  could  poflibly  have 
exifled.  This  point  is  clearly  demonftrated,  in  a  few 
words,  by  that  mod  ingenious,  candid,  and  profound 
philofopher,  Dr.  Thomas  Reid,  ProfefTor  of  Moral  Phi- 
lofophy  in  the  Univerfity  of  Glafgow.  *  If  mankind/ 
fays  Dr.  Reid,  '  had  not  a  natural  language,  they  could 

*  never  have  invented  an  artificial  one  by  their  reafon  and 
c  ingenuity.     For  all  artificial  language  fuppofes    fome 
4  compact  or  agreement  to  affix  a  certain  meaning  to  cer- 
*•'  tain  figns ;  therefore,  there  muft  be  compacts  or  agree- 
c  ments  before  the  ufe  of  artificial  figns ;  but  there  can 

*  be  no  compact  or  agreement  without  figns,  nor  without 

4  language ;  and  therefore  there  muft  be  a  natural  lan- 
c  guage  before  any  artificial  language  can  be  invented  f . 
Let  any  man  try  to  overturn  this   argument,  which  is 
founded,  not  upon  metaphyfical  conjecture,  but  upon  the 
folid  bafis  of  facl  and  uncontrovertible  reafoning.     The 
elements,  or  conftituent  parts  of  the  natural  language  of 
mankind,  the  Doctor  reduces  to  three  kinds ;  modulati- 
ons of  the  voice,  geftures,  and  features.     4  By  means  of 
c  thefe,'  fays  he,  *  two  favages,  who  have  no  common 

5  artificial  language,  can  converfe  together  ;  can  commu- 
c  nicate  their  thoughts  in  fome  tolerable  manner  ;  can  afk 
c  and  refufe,  affirm  and  deny,  threaten  and  fupplicate ; 

*  can  traffic,  enter  into  covenants,  and  plight  their  faith.' 

I 

*  Concerning  the  language  of  beads,  I  {hall,  perhaps,  be  more  explicit  in  a 
future  work.  S. 

t  Doftor  Reid's  Inquiry  into  the  Human  Mind,  on  the  Principles  of  Common. 
Senfe,  pag.  93,  S. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         161 

I  can  perceive  only  one  plaufible  objection  to  this  rea- 
foning.  If,  it  may  be  faid,  man  were  endowed  with  a 
natural  language,  this  language  muft  be  univerfal ;  from 
what  fource,  then,  can  the  great  diverfity  of  languages 
in  different  nations,  and  tribes  of  the  human  race,  be 
derived?  The  folution  of  this  queflion  depends  not  upon 
metaphyfical  arguments,  but  upon  fact  and  experience. 
I  have  had  considerable  opportunities  of  observing  the 
behaviour  of  children.  Infants,  when  very  young,  have 
nearly  the  fame  modes  of  expreffing  their  pleafures  and 
pains,  their  defires  and  averfions.  Thefe  they  communi- 
cate by  voice,  geflure,  and  feature ;  and  every  infant, 
whatever  be  the  country,  climate,  or  language,  uniformly 
expreffes  its  feelings  almofl  in  the  fame  manner.  But, 
when  they  arrive  at  nine  or  twelve  months  of  age,  a 
different  fcene  is  exhibited.  They  then,  befide  the  gene- 
ral expreffions  of  feeling  and  defire,  attempt  to  give  names 
to  particular  ~  objects.  Here  artifice  begins.  In  thefe  at- 
tempts, previous  to  the  capacity  of  imitating  articulate 
founds,  every  individual  infant  utters  different  founds, 
or  rather  gives  different  names,  to  fignify  the  fame  ob- 
jects of  its  defire  or  averfion.  Befide  this  natural  attempt 
towards  a  nomenclature,  infants,  during  the  period  above 
mentioned  (for  the  time  varies  according  to  the  health 
and  vivacity  of  the  child),  frequently  make  continued 
orations.  Thefe-  orations  confiil  both  of  articulate  and 
inarticulate  founds,  of  which  no  man  can  give  an  idea  in 
writing.  But  mod  men,  and  every  woman  who  has  nurfed 
children,  will  perfectly  underftand  what  I  cannot  exprefs. 
From  the  fact,  that  children  actually  utter  different  founds, 
or  give  different  names  to  denote  the  fame  objects,  I  ima- 
gine, arifes  all  that  diverfity  of  languages,  which,  by 
exhauiling  time  and  attention,  retard  the  progrefs  and 
improvement  both  of  Art  and  Science.  If  any  number 
of  children,  or  of  folitary  favages,  mould  chance  to  af- 
fociate,  the  names  of  objects  would  foon  be  fettled  by 
imitation  and  confent.  By  obfervation  and  experience 
the  number  of  names  would  be  augmented,  as  well  as  the 
qualities  or  attributes  of  the  objects  themfeives ;  arid,  in 
the  pr.ogrefs  of  time,  a  new  and  artificial  language  would 

X  be 


i62  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

be  gradually  formed.  While  this  operation  is  going  on 
in  one  corner  of  a  country,  twenty  fimilar  ailociations 
and  compacts  may  be  forming,  or  already  formed,  in  dif- 
ferent nations,  or  in  different  diftricts  of  the  fame  na- 
tion, all  of  which  would  give  birth  to  feparate  artificial 
languages. 


OF      TOUCH. 

THE  fenfations  of  fmelling,  tailing,  hearing,  and  fee- 
ing, are  conveyed  to  us  by  partial  organs,  which  are  all 
confined  to  the  head.  But  the  fenfe  of  touching,  or  of 
feeling,  is  not  only  common  to  thefe  organs,  but  extends 
over  almoft  every  part  of  the  body,  whether  external  or 
internal.  Though  every  fenfation  may  be  comprehended 
tinder  the  general  appellation  of  feeling,  yet  what  is  called 
the  fenfe  of  touch  is  properly  reftridted  to  the  different 
fenfations  excited  by  bodies  applied  to  the  (kin,  and  par- 
ticularly to  the  tips  of  the  fingers. 

With  regard  to  fenfation  in  general,  it  is  worthy  of 
remark,  that  the  eyes,  the  ears,  the  noftrils,  the  tongue 
and  palate,  the  palms  of  the  hands,  efpecially  towards 
the  points  of  the  fingers,  are  more  amply  fupplied  with 
nerves  than  any  other  external  parts  of  the  body.  The 
terminations  of  the  nerves  on  the  furface  of  the  Ikin  are 
foft  and  pulpy,  and  form  minute  protuberances  refemb- 
ling  the  nap  of  freeze-cloth,  though  greatly  inferior  in 
magnitude.  Thefe  protuberances  have  received  the  de- 
nomination of  nervous  papillte.  They  might  be  called 
animal  feelers  ;  for  they  are  obviouily  the  immediate  in- 
ftruments  of  fenfation.  If  an  object  be  prefented  to  the 
eye,  or  any  other  organ  of  fenfation,  certain  feelings  are 
excited,  which  are  either  agreeable  or  difagreeable,  ac- 
cording to  the  real  or  imaginary  qualities  which  we  con- 
fider  as  belonging  to  that  object.  The  feelings  thus 
excited  inftantly  produce  a  change  in  the  fenfitive  organs 
by  which  they  are  occafioned.  If  the  object  be  pofleffed 
of  difagreeable  qualinV  :on  is  the  neceilary  confe- 

quence.  But,  if  beauty  and  utility  are  perceived  in  the 

object, 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         163 

object,  pleafant  emotions  fpring  up  in  the  mind,  which 
naturally  induce  a  fimilar  tone  or  difpofition  in  the  or- 
gans fuited  for  the  enjoyment  of  thefe  qualities. 

When  examining  or  enjoying  any  object,  it  is  natural 
to  inquire,  what  are  the  changes  produced  in  the  nervous 
papilla,  or  organs  of  fenfation  ?  If  an  object  pofieffed  of 
agreeable  feelings  is  perceived,  the  nervous  papillse  in- 
ftantly  extend  themfelves,  and,  from  a  (late  of  flaccidity, 
become  comparatively  rigid  like  briliies.  This  extenfion 
of  the  papillae  is  not  conjectural :  It  is  founded  on  anato- 
mical obfervation,  and,  in  fome  cafes,  may  be  feen  and 
felt  by  perfons  of  acute  and  difcerning  fenfations.  When 
a  man  in  the  dark  inclines  to  examine  any  fubftance,  in 
order  to  difcover  its  figure,  or  other  qualities,  he  perceives 
a  kind  of  rigidity  at  the  tips  of  his  fingers.  If  the  fingers 
are  kept  long  in  this  ftate,  the  rigidity  of  the  nervous 
papillae  will  give  him  a  kind  of  pain  or  anxiety,  which 
it  is  impofTible  to  defcribe.  The  caufe  of  this  pain  is  an 
over-diftenfion  of  the  papillae.  If  a  fmall  infect  creeps  on 
a  man's  hand,  when  the  papilla?  are  flaccid,  its  movements 
are  not  perceived  :  But,  if  he  happens  to  direct  his  eye  to 
the  animal,  he  immediately  extends  his  papillae,  and  feels 
diftinctly  all  its  motions.  If  a  body  be  prefent,  which, 
in  the  common  (late  of  the  nerves,  has  fcarcely  any  fen- 
fible  odour,  by  extending  the  papillse  of  the  noftrils,  an 
agreeable,  clifagreeable,  or  indifferent  fmell  will  be  per- 
ceived. When  two  perfons  are  whifpering,  and  we  wifli 
to  know  what  is  faid,  we  flretch  the  papilla?,  and  other 
organs  of  hearing,  which  are  exceedingly  complex.  If  a 
found  is  too  low  for  making  an  impreflion  on  the  papillae 
in  their  natural  (late  of  relaxation,  we  are  apt  to  over- 
ftretch  the  organ,  which  produces  a  painful  or  irkfome 
feeling.  When  we  examine  a  mite,  or  any  very  minute 
object,  by  the  naked  eye,  a  pain  is  propagated  over  every 
part  of  that  organ.  Several  cauies  may  concur  in  produc- 
ing this  pain,  fuch  as  the  dilating  of  the  pupil,  and  the 
adjufting  the  cryftalline  lens ;  but  the  chief  caufe  muft 
be  afcribed  to  the  preternatural  intumeicence  and  exten- 
fion of  the  papillse  of  the  retina,  the  fubitance  of  which 
is  a  mere  congeries  of  nervous  terminations.  This  cir- 

cumftance 


1 64  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

cumftance  confirms  a  former  remark,  that  the  immediate 
organs  of  Teniation  were  more  copiouily  fupplied  with 
nervous  papillae  than  thofe  parts  whofe  ufes  require  not 
fuch  exquiftte  feafibility  ;  for  a  diftia&ion  in  this  refpect 
is  obfervable  even  among  the  fenfitive  organs  themfelves. 
They  are  furaifhed  with  nerves  exactly  proportioned  to 
the  fubtility  of  the  objects  whofe  impreffions  they  are  fitted 
to  receive.  The  eye  poiferTes  by  far  the  greateft  number. 
The  particles  of  light  are  fo  minute,  that,  had  not  this 
wife  provifion  been  obfcrved  in  the  conftruclion  of  the 
eye,  it  could  never  have  been  able  to  diftinguifh  objects 
with  fuch  accuracy  as  at  prefent  it  is  capable  of  perform- 
ing. When  an  iniipid  body,  or  a  body  which  conveys 
but  a  very  feeble  ienfation  of  tafte,  is  applied  to  the 
tongue,  we  are  coalcious  of  an  effort  which  that  organ 

-•:L-S  iu  order  to  difcover  the  quality  of  the  body  thus 
applied.  This  effort  is  nothing  but  the  ftretching  of  the 
nervous  papillae,  that  they  may  enlarge  the  field  of  contact 
with  the  body  under  examination. 

The  pleafure  or  pain  produced  by  the  fenfe  of  touch 
depends  chiefly  on  the  friction,  or  number  of  impulfes, 
made  upon  the  papillae.  Embrace  any  agreeable  body 
with  your  hand,  and  allow  it  to  remain  perfectly  at  reft, 
and  you  will  find  the  pleafure  not  half  fo  exquifite  as 
whoa  the  hand  is  gently  moved  backward  and  forward 
upon  the  furface.  Apply  the  hand  to  a  piece  of  velvet, 
and  it  is  merely  agreeable :  Rub  the  hand  repeatedly  on 
the  furface  of  the  cl'jth,  and  the  pleafant  feeling  will  be 
augmented  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  impulfes  on 
the  papillae.  When  a  man  is  pinched  with  hunger,  the 
fight  or  idea  of  palatable  food  raifes  the  whole  papilla  of 
his  tongue  and  flomach.  From  this  circumftance  he  is 
highly  regaled  by  eating.  But,  if  he  eats  the  fame  fpecics 
of  food  when  his  ftomach  is  'lefs  keen,  the  pleafure  in 
the  one  cafe  is  not  to  be  compared  with  what  is  felt  in  the 
other.  The  caufe  is  obvious :  His  defire  was  not  fo  urg- 
ent ;  the  object,  of  courfe,  was  lefs  alluring ;  and  there- 
fore he  was  more  remifs  in  erecting  his  papillae,  or  in 
cutting  them  in  a  tone  fuited  to  fuch  eminent  gratification. 

The  fame  obfervations  are  applicable  to  difagreeable  or 

painful 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         165 

painful  objects  of  contact.  If  the  hand  is  laid  upon  a 
gritty  (lone,  or  a  piece  of  rufly  iron,  the  feeling  is  dif- 
agreeable  ;  but  if  it  is  frequently  rubbed  upon  the  fur- 
face  of  thefe  bodies,  the  feeling  becomes  infufferably 
irkfome. 

It  is  by  the  fenfe  of  touch  that  men,  and  other  animals, 
are  enabled  to  perceive  and  determine  many  qualities  of 
external  bodies.  By  this  fenfe  we  acquire  the  ideas  of 
hardnefs  and  foftnefs,  of  roughnefs  and  frnoothnefs,  of 
heat  and  cold,  of  preiTure  and  weight,  of  figure,  and  of 
diflance.  The  fenfe  of  touch  is  more  uniform,  and  liable 
to  fewer  deceptions,  than  thofe  of  fmelling,  tafting,  hear- 
ing, and  feeing  ;  becaufe,  in  examining  the  qualities  of 
objects,  the  bodies  themfelves  muft  be  brought  into  actual 
contact  with  the  organ,  without  the  intervention  of  any 
medium,  the  variations  of  which  might  miilead  the  judg- 
ment. 


OF       SEEING. 

OF  all  the  fenfes,  that  of  feeing  is  unqueftionably  the 
nobleil,  the  mod  refined,  and  the  moft  extenfive.  The 
ear  informs  us  of  the  exiftence  of  objects  at  comparatively 
fmall  diftances  ;  and  its  information  is  often  imperfect 
and  fallacious.  But  the  organ  of  fight,  which  is  mod 
admirably  conftructed,  not  only  enables  us  to  perceive 
thoufands  of  objects  at  one  glance,  together  with  their 
various  figures,  colours,  and  apparent  pofitions,  but,  even 
when  unarmed,  to  form  ideas  of  the  fun  and  planets,  and 
of  many  of  the  fixed  flars  ;  and  thus  connects  us  with 
bodies  fo  remote,  that  imagination  is  loft  when  it  attempts 
to  form  a  conception  of  their  immenfe  magnitude  and 
diftances.  This  natural  field  of  vifion,  however  great, 
has  been  vaftly  extended  by  the  invention  of  optical  in- 
ftruments.  When  aided  by  the  telefcope,  the  eye  pene- 
trates into  regions  of  fpace,  and  perceives  ftars  innume- 
rable, which,  without  the  alMance  of  art,  would  to  us 
have  no  exiftence.  Our  ideas  of  the  beauty,  magnitude, 
and  remotenefs  or  vicinity  of  external  objects,  are  chiefly 

derived 


166  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

derived  from  this  delicate  and  acute  inilrument  of  f- 
fation. 

Before  proceeding  to  the  peculiarities  of  vifion,  am: 
general  properties  of  light,  we  lhall  give  a  fhort  cle 
tion  of  the  iiruclure  of  the  eye. 

The  globe  of  the  eye  is  compofed  of  three  hir 
called  aqueous,  cryjtalline,  and  vitreous  ;  and  of  the 
ciliary  ligament,  and  iris.     All  thefe  are  contained  wil 
thejc/erotica  and  cornea,  or  capfule  of  the  eye.     The  v. 
part  of  the  cornea  is  opaque  ;  but  the  pupil,  or  /v 
the  eye,  through  which  the  rays  of  light  pafs,  is 
fparent.     The  aqueous  humour  is  a  memfcus,  or  a  c^n\. 
exteriorly,  and  concave  internally.    The  cryjialline  hu?> 
is  doubly  convex  ;  and  its  exterior  convexity  is  embraces 
by  the  concave  furface  of  the  aqueous.     The  vitreous  hu- 
mour is  likewife  a  menifcus  ;  its  concave  furface  embraces 
the  interior  convexity  of  the  cryftalline,  and  its  convex 
furface  is  encompaifed  by  the  retina,  which  is  a  fine  ex- 
panfion  of  the  medullary  fibres  of  the  optic  nerve  ipread 
upon   the  convex  furface  of  the  vitreous  humour,  and 
covering  the  bottom  of  the  eye.     The  ciliary  ligament  is 
a  ring  of  fibres,  which  inclofe  the  edges   of  the  cryftal- 
line,  and  ftretch  in  right  lines  towards  its  center.    When 
thefe  fibres  coritracl,  the  diftance  between  the  retina  and 
cryitalline  is  lengthened  ;  and  that  diftance  is  Ihortened 
when  thefe  fibres  are  in  a  relaxed  date.     The  iris  is  that 
coloured  circle  which  furrounds  the  pupil. 

By  this  curious  apparatus  all  the  phenomena  of  vifion 
are  conveyed  to  the  mind.  But,  before  we  enter  upon 
the  manner  in  which  the  different  parts  of  the  eye  concur 
in  tranfmitting  the  rays  of  light  and  the  images  of  ob- 
je&s  to  the  retina,  it  will  be  necefTary  to  give  fome  gene- 
ral ideas  concerning  the  nature  of  lighc,  which  is  the 
imiverfal  medium  of  vifion. 

Light  confifls  of  innumerable  rays,  which  proceed  in 
direct  lines  from  every  part  of  luminous  bodies.  The 
motion  of  light,  though  not  inflantaneous,  is  inconceiv- 
ably fwift.  To  give  fome  comparative  idea  of  its  great 
velocity,  it  has  been  difcovered  by  philofophers,  that 
rays  of  light  coming  from  the  fun  reach  this  earth  in 

feven 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         167 

feven  minutes.  Now,  the  diftance  of  the  earth  from  the 
fun  Is  fo  immenfe,  that,  fuppofmg  a  cannon  ball  to  move 
at  the  rate  of  500  feet  hi  a  fecond,  it  could  not  come 
from  the  fun  to  the  earth  in  lefs  than  25  years.  At  this 
rate,  the  velocity  of  light  will  be  above  10  million  of 
times  greater  than  that  of  a  cannon  ball. 

The  rays  of  light,  though  they  proceed  in  direct  lines 
from  luminous  bodies,  are  refracted,  or  bent  out  of  their 
courfe,  in  patting  through  different  mediums,  as  the  air, 
glafs,  and  every  tranfparent  fubftances ;  but,  when  they 
fall  upon  opaque  bodies,  they  are  reflected.  Rays  pro- 
ceeding from  any  object,  and  palling  through  a  convex 
glafs,  or  lens,  are  refracted  and  collected  into  a  point,  or 
fmall  fpace,  tit  a  certain  diftance  from  the  glafs,  which 
is  called  the  focus  of  that  lens. 

The  white  light  conveyed  to  us  by  the  fun  is  not  ho- 
mogeneous, but  confifts  of  feven  differently-coloured 
rays,  or  what  are  called  the  primary  colours.  Thefe  dif- 
ferently-coloured rays  were  difcovered  by  Sir  Ifaac  New- 
ton to  have  different  degrees  of  refrangibility.  When 
the  white  light  of  the  fun  was  made  to  pafs  through  a 
glafs  prifm,  he  found,  that,  inftead  of  retaining  its  ori- 
ginal whitenefs,  it  exhibited  feven  diftinct  colours,  and 
that  this  phenomenon  was  produced  by  the  feveral  rays 
in  the  composition  of  white  light  being  more  or  lefs  re- 
fracted, or  turned  from  their  direct  courfe.  The  fimple 
primary  colours  are  feven  in  number,  namely,  red,  orange, 
yellow,  green,  blue,  indigo,  and  violet.  Red  is  the  leafl, 
and  violet  the  moil  refrangible  parts  of  white  light.  .A 
proper  mixture  of  all  the  feven  primary  colours  confti- 
tutes  whitenefs  ;  and  by  various  combinations  of  the  pri- 
mary colours,  all  the  compound  colours  exhibited  either 
in  Nature  or  art  are  produced.  Any  furface  appears  black 
when  it  reflects  little  or  no  light. 

The  different  humours  of  the  eye,  and  the  cryftalline 
lens,  are  all  denfer  than  air  or  water ;  of  courfe,  their 
power  of  refracting  the  rays  of  light  is  likewife  greater. 
The  rays  proceeding  from  every  point  of  an  object  enter 
the  pupil ;  and  the  refraction  of  the  different  parts  of 
the  eye,  which  act  as  a  lens,  neceffarily  makes  them  crofs 

each 


168  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

each  other  in  their  paflage  to  the  retina.  After  croffing, 
they  diverge  till  they  are  flopped  by  the  retina,  where 
they  form  an  inverted  pidure.  The  upper  part  of  the 
objed  is  painted  on  the  lower  part  of  the  retina,  and  the 
right  fide  upon  the  left,  &c.  The  celebrated  Kepler  firft 
difcovered,  that  diftinct,  but  inverted,  pictures  of  every 
object  we  behold  are  painted  on  the  retina  by  the  rays  of 
light  proceeding  from  vifible  objeds.  This  difcovery  na- 
turally led  Kepler,  as  well  as  many  other  philoibphers 
fince  his  time,  to  inquire  how  we  ihould  fee  objeds  erect 
from  inverted  images  on  the  retina. 

Many  ingenious  theories  have  been  invented,  and  many 
volumes  have  been  written,  in  order  to  explain  this  feem- 
ingly-difficult  queftion.  To  give  even  a  curfory  view  of 
thefe  theories  would  not  only  be  tedious,  but  in  a  great 
meafure  ufelefs.  We  fhall,  therefore,  only  remark,  that 
their  authors  uniformly  aimmed  it  as  a  principle,  that, 
becaufe  the  pictures  are  inverted  on  the  retina,  the  mind 
ought  alfo  to  perceive  them  in  the  fame  pofition.  It  is 
certain,  that,  unlefs  diflind  images  are  painted  on  the 
retina,  objects  cannot  be  clearly  perceived.  If,  from  too 
little  light,  remotenefs,  or  any  other  caufe,  a  picture  is 
indiftindly  painted  on  the  retina,  an  obfcure  or  indiftinct 
idea  of  the  object  is  conveyed  to  the  mind.  The  picture 
on  the  retina,  therefore,  is  fo  far  the  caufe  of  viiion,  that, 
unlefs  this  picture  be  clear  and  well  defined,  our  ideas  of 
the  figure,  colour,  and  other  qualities  of  any  object  pre- 
fented  to  the  eye,  will  be  obfcure  and  imperfect.  The 
retina  of  the  eye  refembles  a  canvas  on  which  objects  are 
painted.  The  colours  of  thefe  pictures  are  bright  or 
obfcure,  in  proportion  to  the  diftances  of  the  objects  re- 
prefented.  When  objects  are  very  remote,  their  pictures 
on  the  retina  are  fo  faint,  that  they  are  entirely  obliterated 
by  the  vigorous  and  lively  impreflions  of  nearer  objects, 
with  which  we  are  every  way  furrounded.  On  the  other 
hand,  when  near  objects  emit  a  feeble  light  only,  com- 
pared with  that  which  proceeds  from  a  remote  object,  as, 
for  example,  when  we  view  luminous  bodies  in  the  night, 
then  very  diftant  objects  make  diftind  pictures  on  the 

retina., 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         169 

retina,  and  become  perfe&ly  vifible.  Hence  a  man,  by 
placing  hirnfeif  in  a  dark  fituation,  and  looking  through 
a  long  tube,  without  the  intervention  of  a  glafs,  may 
make  a  kind  of  telefcope,  which  will  have  a  confiderable 
effect  even  during  the  day.  For  the  fame  reafon,  a  man 
at  the  bottom  of  a  deep  pit  can  fee  the  flars  at  noon. 

The  firit  and  greateft  error  in  vifion,  in  the  opinion  of 
many  authors,  arifes  from  the  inverted  reprefentation  of 
objects  upon  the  retina ;  and  they  maintain,  that,  till 
children  learn  the  real  pofition  of  bodies  by  the  fenfe  of 
feeling,  they  fee  every  object  inverted.  But  new-born 
animals,  whether  of  the  human  or  brute  fpecies,  fee 
objects,  not  inverted,  but  in  their  real  pofitions,  inde- 
pendently of  all  experience,  or  of  any  opportunity  of 
rectifying  the  fuppofed  ilhifion  by  the  fenfe  of  touch. 
Animals  fee  objects  in  their  real  pofition  by  a  law  of  Na- 
ture, and  by  the  inftrumentality  of  the  eye  and  optic 
nerve.  Were  it  not  a  law  of  Nature,  or  of  the  confti- 
tution  of  animals,  to  fee  objects  erect,  though  their  ima- 
ges be  inverted  on  the  retina,  an  inverted  object  could 
not  poilibly  appear  inverted ;  for,  in  this  cafe,  we 
fhould  not  be  obliged  to  have  recourfe  to  experience,  or 
to  the  fenfe  of  feeling.  Befides,  it  is  an  eflablifhed  fact, 
that  blind  men,  who  had  been  reftored  to  fight  by  chirur- 
gical  operations,  inftantly  faw  objects  in  their  real  pofiti- 
tion  *.  There  is  no  relation  to  the  principles  of  optics, 
in  the  fenfation  of  feeling,  by  which  an  image,  painted 
by  rays  of  light  on  foft  white  nervous  terminations,  is  con- 
verged through  a  mod  opaque  body,  in  a  long  courie  of 
perfect  darknefs,  to  the  brain.  Indeed,  the  fenfe  by 
which  the  perceiving  nerves  of  any  kind  are  affected,  iu 
not  an  image  or  idea  of  the  object.  The  idea  of  rednefs 
has  nothing  in  common  with  the  lead  refrangible  portions 
of  light  feparated  from  the  other  fix  coloured  rays  of 
which  white  light  is  compofed.  The  pain  of  burning 
reprelents  not  to  the  mind  any  thing  of  that  fwift  and 
fubtle  matter  by  which  the  nervous  threads  are  broken  or 
deftroyed.  There  is  nothing  in  the  idea  of  a  fharp  found, 

Y  from 

*  Haller.  Phyfiol.  torn.  2,  pag,  87.    S. 


i7o  THEPHILOSOPHY 

from  a  cord  of  a  certain  length,  which   can  inform  the 
mind  that  this  cord  vibrates  2000  times  in  a  fecond  *. 

Another  queftion  with  regard  to  vifion  has  been  much 
agitated  by  philofophers.  Becaufe  a  feparate  image  of 
every  object  is  painted  on  the  retina  of  each  eye,  it  was 
concluded,  that  we  naturally  fee  all  objects  double ;  that 
we  learn  to  correct  this  error  of  vifion  by  the  fenfe  of 
touching ;  and  that,  if  the  fenfe  of  feeing  were  not  con- 
ftantly  rectified  by  that  of  touching,  we  mould  be  perpe- 
tually deceived  as  to  the  pofition,  number,  and  fituation 
of  objects.  The  Count  de  Buffon  mentions  the  real  fact, 
though  he  afcribes  it  to  a  wrong  caufe.  c  When  two 
c  images,'  fays  he,  c  fall  on  correfponding  parts  of  the 
6  retinas,  or  thofe  parts  which  are  always  affected  at  the 

*  fame  time,  objects  appear  fingle,  becaufe  we  are  aecuf- 
'  tomed  to  judge  of  them  in  this  manner.    But,  when  the 
4  images  of  objects  fail  upon  parts  of  the  retinae  which 
4  are  not  ufually  affected  at  the  fame  time,  they  then  appear 
4  double,  becaufe  we  have  not  acquired  the  habit  of  rec- 
c  tifying  this  unufual  fenfation.    Mr.  Cheffelden,  in  his 
4  anatomy,  relates  the  cafe  of  a  man  who  had  been  affe&ed 
4  with  a  ftrabifmus,  or   fquinting,  in   confequence  of  a 
4  blow  on  the  head.    This  man  faw  every  object  double 

*  for  a  long  time  :  But  he  gradually  learned  to   correct 
'this  error  of  vifion,  with  regard  to  objects  which  were 
4  familiar  to  him  ;  and,  at  laft,  he  faw  every  object  fingle 
4  as  formerly,  though  the  fquinting  was  never   removed. 
4  This  is  a  proof  ftill  more  direct,  that  we  really   fee  all 
4  objects  double,  and  that  it  is  by  habit  alone  we  learn  to 
4  conceive  them  to  be  fingle -(-.' 

In  this,  and  other  paffages,  the  Count  de  Buffon  has 
pointed  out  the  genuine  caufe  (or  ultimate  fact)  why  we 
fee  objects  Jingle  with  two  eyes.  He  tells  us,  that,  though 
a  diftinct  image  is  painted  on  each  retina,  whenever  thefe 
images  are  painted  on  correfponding  points  of  the  retinae, 
an  object  is  perceived  to  be  fingle.  It  is  equally  true, 
that,  when  one  eye  is  diftorted  by  the  finger,  or  any  other 

caufe, 

*For  a  more  ample  difcuflion  of  this  point,   fee  Hallcr.   Phyfiol.  totn.  2.  ;— 
and  Dr.   Rein's  Inquiry.     S. 
t  Buffon,  vol.  y.  pag.  7.     Tranflat.     S. 


ca 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         171 

caufe,  in  fuch  a  manner  that  the  images  are  painted  on 
points  of  the  retinse  which  do  not  correfpond,  the  object 
is  perceived  to  be  double.  Objects  which  are  much  nearer, 
or  much  more  remote,  than  that  to  which  both  eyes  are 
directed,  appear  double.  If  a  candle  is  placed  at  the 
diftance  of  ten  feet,  and  a  man  holds  his  finger  at  arm's- 
length  between  his  eyes  and  the  candle,  when  he  looks 
at  the  candle,  he  fees  his  finger  double,  and,  when  he 
looks  at  his  finger,  he  fees  the  candle  double.  c  In  this 
6  phenomenon,'  Dr.  Reid  properly  remarks,  *  it  is  evi- 
4  dent  to  thofe  who  underftand  optics,  that  the  pidures 
6  of  objects  which  are  feen  double,  do  not  fall  upon  points 

*  of  the  retinae  which  are  fimilarly  fituated,  but  that  the 
6  pictures  of  objects  feen  fmgle  do  fall  upon  points  fimi- 
6  larly  fituated.    Whence  we  infer,  that  as  the  points  of 

*  the  two  retina,  which  are  fimilarly  fituated  with  regard 
c  to  the  centres,  do  correfpond,  fo  thofe  which  are  difli- 
4  milarly  fituated  do  not  correfpond.    It  is  to  be  obferved, 
'  that  although,  in  fuch  cafes  as  jfe  mentioned  in  the  laft 
c  phenomenon,  v/e  have  been  accuftomed  from  infancy 
4  to  fee  objects  double  which  we  know  to  be  (ingle ;  yet 
c  cuftorn,    and   experience   of  the   unity  of   the   object, 
6  never  take  away  this  appearance  of  duplicity*.' 

The  fenfe  of  feeing,  without  the  aid  of  experience, 
conveys  no  idea  of  diftance.  If  not  afliited  by  the  fenfe 
of  touching,  all  objects  would  feem  to  be  in  contact  with 
the  eye  itfeli.  Objects  appear  larger  or  fmaller  according 
as  they  approach  or  recede  from  the  eye,  or  according  to 
the  angle  they  fubtend.  A  fly,  when  very  near  the  eye, 
feems  to  be  larger  than  a  horfe  or  an  ox  at  a  diftance. 
Children  can  have  no  idea  of  the  relative  magnitude  of 
objects,  becaufe  they  have  no  notion  of  the  different  dif- 
tances  at  which  they  are  feen.  It  is  only  after  ineafuring 
fpace  by  extending  the  hand,  or  by  tranfporting  their 
bodies  from  one  place  to  another,  that  children  acquire 
juft  ideas  concerning  the  real  diltances  and  magnitudes  of 
objects.  Their  ideas  of  magnitude  refulfc  entirely  from 
the  angle  formed  by  the  extreme  rays  reflected  from  the 
fuperior  and  inferior  parts  of  the  object:  Hence,  every 

near 

*  Dr.  Reid's  Inquiry,  &c.  page  287.     S. 


172  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

near  object  muft  appear  to  be  large,  and  every  difrant  one 
fmall.  But  after,  by  touch,  having  acquired  ideas  or 
diflances,  the  judgment  concerning  magnitude  begins  to 
be  rectified.  If  we  judge  iblely  by  the  eye,  and  have  not 
acquired  the  habit  of  confidering  the  fame  objects  to  be 
equally  large,  though  feen  at  different  diflances,  the  nearefl 
of  two  men,  though  of  equal  fize,  would  feem  to  be 
many  times  larger  than  the  fartheft.  But  we  know  that 
the  lad  man  is  equally  large  with  the  firfl  ;  and,  therefore, 
\ve  judge  him  to  be  of  the  fame  dimenfions.  Any  diflance 
ceaies  to  be  familiar  to  us,  when  the  interval  is  vertical, 
mfcead  of  being  horizontal ;  becaule  all  the  experiments 
by  which  we  ufualiy  rectify  the  errors  of  vifion,  with 
rc-iard  to  'diflances,  are  made  horizontally.  We  have  not 
the  habit  of  judging  concerning  the  magnitude  of  objects 
which  are  much  elevated  above  or  funk  below  us.  This 
is  fche  reafon  that,  when  viewing  men  from  the  top  of  a 
tower,  or  when  looking  up  to  a  globe  or  a  cock  on  the 
top  of  a  fteeple,  we  thjpk  thefe  objecls  much  fmaller  than 
when  feen  at  equal  diuances  in  a  horizontal  direction. 
During  the  night,  on  account  of  the  darknefs,  we  have 
no  proper  idea  of  diilance,  and,  of  courfe,  judge  of  the 
magnitude  of  objects  iblely  by  the  largenefs  of  the  angle 
or  image  formed  in  the  eye,  which  neceffarily  produces 
a  variety  of  deceptions.  When  travelling  in  the  night, 
we  are  liable  to  miflake  a  bum  that  is  near  us  for  a  tree 
at  a  diflance,  or  a  diflant  tree  for  a  bum  which  is  at  hand. 
When  benighted  in  a  part  of  the  country  with  which  we 
fire  unacquainted,  and,  of  courfe,  unable  to  judge  of  the 
diflance  and  figure  of  objecls,  we  are  every  moment  liable 
to  all  the  deceptions  of  vifion.  This  is  the  origin  of  that 
dread  which  feme  men  feel  in  the  dark,  and  of  thofe 
ghods  and  horrible  figures  which  -fo  many  people  pofi- 
tively  alien  they  have  feen  in  the  night.  Such  figures  are 
commonly  faid  to  exift  in  imagination  only  ;  but  they 
often  have  a  real  exiilence  in  the  eye  ;  for,  when  we  have 
no  other  mode  of  recognifing  unknown  objecls  but  by 
the  angle  they  form  in  the  eye,  their  magnitude  is  uni- 
formly augmented  in  proportion  to  their  vicinity.  If  an 
object,*  at  the  diilance  of  twenty  or  thirty  paces,  appears 

to 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         173 

to  be  only  a  few  feet  high,  its  height,  when  viewed  within 
two  or  three  feet  of  the  eye,  will  feem  to  be  many  fathoms. 
Objects,  in  this  fituation,  muft  excite  terror  and  aftonim- 
ment  in  the  fpe&ator,  till  he  approaches  and  recognifes 
them  by  actual  feeling ;  for  the  moment  a  man  examines 
an  object  properly,  the  gigantic  figure  it  aiTumed  in  the 
eye  inftantly  vanimes,  and  its  apparent  magnitude  is  re- 
duced to  its  real  dimenfions.  •  But  if,  inftead  of  approach- 
ing an  object  of  this  kind,  the  fpectator  flies  from  it,  he 
retains  the  idea  which  the  image  of  it  formed  in  his  eye, 
and  he  may  affirm  with  truth,  that  he  beheld  an  object 
terrible  in  its  afpect,  and  enormous  in  its  fize.  Hence 
the  notiqn  of  fpectres,  and  of  horrible  figures,  is  founded 
in  nature,  and  depends  not  folely  on  imagination. 

When  we  have  no  idea  of^the  diftance  of  objects  by  a 
previous  knowledge  of  the  fpace  between  them  and  the 
•eye,  we  try  to  judge  of  their  magnitudes  by  recognifmg 
their  figures.  But,  when  their  figures  are  not  didinguim- 
able,  we  perceive  thofe  which  are  moft  brilliant  in  colour 
to  be  neareft,  and  thofe  that  are  moil  obfcure  to  be  at  the 
greater!  diftance.  From  this  mode  of  judging  many  de- 
ceptions originate.  When  a  number  of  objects  are  placed 
in  a  right  line,  as  lamps  in  a  long  ftreet,  we  cannot  judge 
of  their  proximity  or  remotenefs  but  by  the  different 
quantities  of  light  they  tranfmit  to  the  eye.  Of  courfe, 
if  the  lamps  neareft  the  eye  happen  to  be  more  obfcure 
than  thofe  which  are  more  remote,  the  firft  will  appear 
to  be  laft,  and  the  laft  firft. 


Before  I  difmifs  this  fubject,  I  feel  an  irrefiftible  defire 
of  giving  a  fhort  view  of  the  Abbe  de  Condillac's  fraite 
des  Senfations*  ;  a  moft  ingenious  performance,  which, 
I  believe,  is  not  very  generally  known  in  this  country. 

In  an  advertifernent  prefixed  to  this  Treatife,  the  faga- 
cious  and  learned  Abbe  defires  his  readers  to  abftract 
themfelves  from  all  their  preconceived  opinions,  and  to 

imagine 

*  From  the  edition  1754,  in  two  volumes  121110.     S. 


i74  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

imagine  the  fituation  and  feelings  of  a  ftatue,  limited,  at 
firft,  to  a  fmgle  fenfe,  and  afterwards  acquiring  gradually 


the  whole  five. 


.    Senfe  of  Smelling  alone. 


A  MAN,  or  a  ftatue,  who  had  no  fenfe  but  that  of  fmeli- 
ing,  could  have  no  other  ideas  than  thofe  of  odours.  He 
would  be  the  fmell  of  a  rofe,  a  violet,  or  a  jeflamine,  ac- 
cording as  the  effluvia  of  thefe  objects  acted  upon  his 
fmgle  organ  of  fenfation.  From  agreeable  or  difagreeable 
fmells  he  would  acquire  ideas  of  pleafure  and  pain.  By 
means  of  agreeable  and  difagreeable  fmells  frequently  re- 
peated, thefe  fenfations  would  remain  in  his  memory,  and 
produce  defire  and  averfion.  He  can  now  compare  the 
fmell  of  a  rofe  with  that  of  an  hemlock.  As  foon  as  he 
compares,  he  judges  of  the  relation  between  two  ideas. 
In  proportion  as  thefe  comparifons  or  judgments  are  re- 
peated, he  acquires,  by  habit,  a  greater  facility  in  making 
them.  He  can  judge  of  different  degrees  of  pleafure  and 
pain.  Hence,  when  he  feels  uneafy,  he  recals  pleafant 
fenfations  which  are  pad,  and  wiflies  for  their  return. 
This  is  the  origin  of  defire  and  want.  Memory  is  the 
recollection  only  of  what  is  pad  ;  but,  when  the  ideas  of 
objects  prefent  themfelves  in  fo  lively  a  manner,  that 
he  believes  they  are  actually  prefent,  this  operation  of 
the  mind  is  called  imagination.  Being  limited  to  the  ufe 
of  one  fenfe,  he  would  learn  to  diftinguifh  fmells  with 
greater  accuracy  than  beings  endowed  with  more  fources 
of  information.  Abftraction  is  the  feparation  of  two  ideas 
which  have  a  natural  connection.  By  reflecting  that  the 
ideas  of  pain  and  pleafure  refult  from  different  modifica- 
tions of  his  exiitence,  he  contracts  the  habit  of  feparating 
them,  and  thus  acquires  abftract  notions.  To  our  ftatue, 
a  violet  is  a  particular  idea  only  ;  confequently,  all  his 
ab(h-actions  are  limited  to  different  degrees  of  pleafure 
and  pain.  The  fuccefiion  of  fenfations  will  give  him  forne 
faint  ideas  of  .number,  of  pad,  and  of  future  time.  Du- 
ration is  an  ide^  purely  relative,  and  changes  according 
to  the  rapidity  or  flownefs  of  our  perceptions.  Our  fta- 
tue 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         175 

tue  is  incapable  of  diftinguifhing  dreams,  or  a  lively  ima- 
gination, from  real  feniations.  By  the  aid  of  memory  he 
recognifes  his  identity,  and  knows  his  prefent  from  his 
paft  condition.  From  thefe  remarks  it  appears,  that  a 
man  limited  to  one  fenfe  is  capable  of  acquiring  the  rudi- 
ments of  every  human  faculty,  and  that  thefe  faculties 
are  only  extended  by  the  addition  of  other  fenfes.  Nearly 
the  fame  acquifitions  would  be  made,  if  a  man  were  li- 
mited to  any  of  the  other  fenfes. 

2.  Of  Hearing  alone. 

THE  pleafures  of  the  ear  arife  chiefly  from  the  fuccef- 
fion  of  founds  conformably  to  the  rules  of  melody  or  of 
harmony.  Hence  our  flatue's  defires  would  not  be  con- 
fined to  a  fingle  found  ;  he  would  wifh  to  become  a  com- 
plete air.  Sounds  produce  greater  emotions  than  odours. 
They  excite  joy  or  fadnefs  independently  of  acquired 
ideas.  Noife  alone,  without  mufical  expreflion,  would 
be  agreeable :  And  mufic  would  convey  pleafure  propor- 
tioned to  the  exercife  of  the  ear.  Simple,  and  even  coarfe 
fongs,  would  at  firfl  be  ravifhing.  But,  when  gradually 
accuftomed  to  mufic  more  compounded,  the  ear  would 
difcover  new  fources  of  delight.  The  pleafure  of  a  fuc- 
ceflion  of  mufical  tones  being  fuperior  to  that  of  a  con- 
tinued noife,  he  would  not  confound  the  one  with  the 
other, 

3.  Smelling  and  Hearing  united. 

As  thefe  fenfes,  taken  feparately, '  give  to  our  flatue  no 
idea  of  external  objeds,  neither  can  they  by  their  union. 
He  would  never  fufped  that  he  had  two  different  organs 
of  perception,  nor,  at  firft,  diftinguifh  two  modes  of 
existence  in  himfelf.  Sounds  and  odours  would  be  con- 
founded, and  feeni  to  be  only  one  fimple  modification. 
He  would  learn,  however,  by  experience,  and  the  aid  of 
memory,  to  diftinguifh  two  fenfations ;  and  then  he  would 
think  that  his  exiftence  was  double.  His  train  of  ideas 
is  more  varied  and  extenfive,  becaufe  he  has  two  kinds 

of 


i76  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

of  modification;  and,  perhaps,  noife  would  feem  fo  dif- 
ferent from  harmonious  founds,  that  he  might  imagine 
he  had  three  fenfes. 

4.  Tafte  alone,  and  Tafte  united  with  Smelling  and  Hearing. 

WHEN  limited  to  tafte  alone,  the  ftatue  would  acquire 
the  fame  mental  powers  as  with  fmelling  or  hearing. 
Tafte  would  contribute  more  to  his  happinefs  and  mifery 
than  fmelling  or  hearing ;  becaufe  favours,  in  general, 
affedt  us  more  than  fmells,  or  even  harmonious  founds. 

When  tafte  is  united  with  fmelling  and  hearing,  the 
ftatue,  after  learning  to  know  them  feparately,  would  be 
enabled  to  diftinguiili  thefe  fenfations,  even  when  tranf- 
mitted  to  him  at  the  fame  time ;  and  therefore  his  exift- 
ence  would  in  fomc  meafure  be  tripled.  The  union  of 
thefe  fenfes  would  ftill  farther  extend  and  diverfify  the 
train  of  his  ideas,  augment  the  number  of  his  defires, 
and  make  him  contract  new  habits. 

5.  Of  Sight  alone. 

SIGHT  and  all  fenfations  are  internal,  and  belong  to 
the  mind.  The  difficulty  is  to  conceive  how  we  refer 
thefe  fenfations  to  external  objects  or  caufes.  Our  ftatue 
would  confider  light  and  colour  as  modes  of  his  own  ex- 
iftence ;  but  could  have  no  idea  that  they  belonged  to 
bodies  diftinct  from  himfelf.  At  firft  he  would  not  be 
able  to  diftinguifn  one  colour  from  another  ;  but  he 
would  foon  acquire  the  habit  of  confidering  one  colour 
at  a  time,  and  thus  learn  to  diftinguifh  them.  By  fight 
alone  he  could  have  no  idea  of  figure,  fituation,  exten- 
fion,  or  motion. 

6.  Sight  united  with  Smelly  Hearing,  and  Taftc. 

THIS  union  would  augment  our  ftatue's  mode  of  ex- 
iftence,  extend  the  chain  of  his  ideas,  and  multiply  the 
objects  of  his  attention,  of  his  defires,  and  of  his  enjoy- 
ments. But  he  would  ftill  continue  to  perceive  himfelf 

alone, 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         x;; 

ulone*,  and  could  have  no  idea  of  external  obje&s.  He 
would  fee,  fmell,  tafte,  and  hear,  without  knowing  that 
he  had  eyes,  nofe,  mouth,  or  ears,  nor  even  that  he  had 
a  body.  With  the  fame  colour  before  his  eyes,  if  a  fuc- 
ceflion  of  fmells',,  favours,  and  founds,  were  prefented  to 
him,  he  would  confider  himfelf  as  a  colour  fucceffively 
odoriferous,  favoury,  and  fonorous.  If  the  fame  odour 
were  conftantly  prefent  with  him,  he  would  confider  him- 
felf as  a  favoury,  fonorous,  and  coloured  odour. 

7.  Of  'Touching  alone. 

THE  fmallefl  degree  of  fentiment,  or  feeling,  which  a 
man  limited  to  the  fenfe  of  touching  could  have,  would 
arife  from  the  adion  of  different  parts  of  the  body,  and 
particularly  from  the  motion  of  refpiration.  This  the 
Abbe  calls  the  fundamental  fentiment,  becaufe  with  it  life 
commences.  As  foon  as  this  fundamental  fentiment  has 
undergone  any  change,  the  flatue  is  confcious  of  his  own 
exiftence.  When  not  (truck  by  any  external  body,  and 
placed  in  a  temperate  tranquil  air,  of  an  equal  degree  of 
heat,  he  would  only  recognife  his  exiftence  by  the  con- 
fufed  impreflion  refulting  from  the  motion  of  refpiration. 
He  cannot  diftinguifli  the  different  parts  of  his  body, 
and  confequently  has  no  idea  of  extenfion.  Different 
feelings  perceived  at  the  fame  time  convey  a  confufed 
fenfation  only.  But,  when  heat  and  cold  are  felt  in  fuc- 
ceffion,  he  diftinguifhes  them,  and  retains  in  his  memory 
the  idea  of  each  fenfation.  Touching  different  parts  of 
his  body,  and  of  external  objecls,  gradually  unfolds  the 
ideas  of  extenfion,  folidity,  foftnefs,  hardnefs,  diflance, 
&c.  Hence  he  no  longer  confounds  himfelf  with  his 
modifications.  He  is  no  longer  heat  or  cold ;  but  he 
perceives  heat  in  one  part  and  cold  in  another.  By  means 
of  the  hand,  he  diftinguifhes  his  own  perfon  from  exter- 
nal objecls.  When  he  touches  the  parts  of  his  body, 
each -part  returns  a  fenfation.  But,  when  he  touches 
another  body,  he  feels  that  it  exifts,  but  returns  no  fen- 
fation ;  and  hence  he  learns  that  there  are  bodies  which 
conftitute  no  part  of  himfelf.  < 

Z  Children 


178  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

Children  derive  the  greateft '  happinefs  from  motion. 
Even  falls  do  not  deter  them.  A  bandage  on  their  eyes 
would  give  them  lefs  pain  than  a  reftraint  on  the  ufe  of 
their  limbs.  Motion,  befide  many  other  advantages^ 
gives  them  the  mod  lively  conicioufnefs  of  their  own  ex- 
iilence  and  powers.  If  exercife  be  pleafant  to  children, 
it  would  be  (till  more  fo  to  our  ftatiie ;  for  as  yet  he  not 
only  knows  no  obftacle  to  interrupt  his  movements,  but 
he  will  foon  experience  all  the  pleafures  to  be  derived 
from  motion.  The  ftatue  at  firft  loves  every  body  that 
does  not  hurt  him.  Polifhed  and  fmooth  furfaces  will 
be  agreeable  to  him ;  and  he  will  be  delighted  to  find 
that  he  can  at  pleafure  enjoy  warmth  or  coolnefs.  He 
will  receive  peculiar  pleafure  from  objeds,  which,  from 
their  figure  and  magnitude,,  are  moft  accommodated  to 
the  form  of  his  hand.  At  other  times,  the  difficulty 
of  handling  obje&s,  on  account  of  their  fize  or  weight, 
will  give  him  .pleafure  by  furprife ;  and  this  pleafure  will 
be  augmented  by  the  fpace  he  difcovers  around  them, 
which  will  render  the  motion  of  his  body  from  one  place 
to  another  extremely  agreeable.  Solidity  and  fluidity, 
hardnefs  and  foftnefs,  motion  and  reft,  will  be  pleafant 
fenfatioris  ;  for  the  more  he  contrafts  them,  the  more 
they  will  attract  his  attention  and  extend  his  ideas.  But 
the  habit  he  acquires  of  comparing  and  judging  is  the 
greateft  fource  of  his  pleafures.  He-  no  longer  touches 
objects  folely  for  the  pleafure  of  handling  them.  He 
wifhes  to  know  their  relations,  and  he  feels  as  many 
agreeable  fenfations  as  he  forms  new  ideas. 

Touching  expofes  him  more  frequently  to  pain  than  the 
other  fenfes.  But  pleafure  is  always  within  his  reach,  and 
pain  is  felt  only  at  intervals.  His  defires  confift  chiefly 
of  the  efforts  of  his  mind  to  recal  the  molt  agreeable  ideas. 
But  that  kind  of  defire  of  which  the  fenfe  of  touch  ren- 
ders him  capable,  includes  motion,  or  the  power  of  fearch- 
jng  for  fenfations.  Hence  his  enjoyments  are  not  limited 
to  the  ideas  prefented  by  the  imagination,  but  extend  to 
all  the  objects  he  can  reach  ;  and  his  defires,  inftead  of 
being  concentrated  into  modes  of  his  exiflence,  as  in  the 

other 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  179 

other  fenfes,  lead  him  always  to  external  bodies,  which 
are  the  objects  of  his  love,  hatred,  and  other  pailions. 

By  motion  he  acquires  the  idea  of  fpace.  Repeated 
experience  of  difcovering  new  ferfations  renders  him  ca- 
pable of  curiofity.  But  pain  repreffes  his  defire  of  mov- 
ing, and  makes  him  diffident.  Hence  he  learns  to  move 
with  caution ;  and  the  fame  chance  that  led  him  to  lay 
hold  of  a  ftick,  will  teach  him  to  ufe  it  for  exploring 
what  may  be  hurtful  to  him,  Pleafure  and  pain  are  the 
iburces  of  all  his  ideas,  the  number  of  which  acquirable 
by  our  ftatue  is  almofc  infinite.  He  learns  to  compare 
his  different  fenfations,  and  to  diftmgaiili  different  bodies^ 
He  acquires  the  idea  of  figure,  and  becomes  capable  of 
reflection  and  abftra&ion.  He  acquires  likewife  the  ideas 
of  number,  of  duration,  of  fpace,  and  of  immenfity. 

8.  Of  Touch  united  with  Smelling* 

ON  this  fuppofition,  the  flatue  would  perceive  himfeli 
to  be  two  different  beings,  one  that  he  could  touch,  arid 
another  which  he  could  not.  When  chance  made  him  lay 
hold  of  an  odorous  body,  he  would  find  that  its  fmell 
was  ftronger  or  weaker,  in  proportion  as  he  brought  the 
body  nearer,  or  removed  it  farther  from  his  face.  This 
experiment  frequently  repeated  will  give  him  the  idea 
that  fmell  proceeds  from,  or  is  a  quality  of,  bodies.  By 
the  fame  means  he  difcovers  the  organ  of  fmelling.  From 
this  fource  his  ideas  concerning  the  qualities  of  bodies 
are  greatly  extended, 

9.  Hearing,  Tqfte,  and  Touching,  united. 

AT  firil  our  ftatue  is  totally  occupied  with  this  new 
fenfe,  and  believes  himfelf  to  be  the  fmging  of  birds,  the 
noife  of  a  cafcade,  &c.  By  the  exercife,  however,  of 
handling  fonorous  bodies,  or  of  letting  them  fall,  he 
perceives  that  found  is  produced  by  impulfe  or  colliiion, 
gradually  difcovers  this  new  organ,  and  that  noife  is  a 
property  of  bodies  even  at  a  diftance. 

10.  Of 


i8o  THE     PHILOSOPHY 


i  o.  Of  Sight  united  with  all  the  other  Senfes. 

THE  eye  conveys  no  idea  of  diftance,  of  magnitude, 
of  figure,  or  of  fituation,  without  the  sffiflance  of  touch- 
ing. Either  from  chance,  or  from  the  pain  occafioned 
by  too  ftrong  a  light,  the  flatue  carries  his  hand  to  his 
eyes.  The  colours  of  objects  inftantly  difappear.  He  re- 
moves his  hand,  and  the  colours  return.  Hence  he  learns 
that  colours  are  not  modes  of  his  exiftence,  but  that  they 
feem  to  be  fomething  exifting  in  his  eyes,  in  the  fame 
manner  as  he  feels  at  the  ends  of  his  fingers  the  objects 
lie  touches. 

The  Abbe,  in  the  fame  ingenious  manner,  mows  how, 
by  experience  and  habit,  by  motion  and  touching,  we 
acquire  a  facility  in  correcting  the  errors  of  vifion.  But 
our  limits  permit  us  not  to  follow  him  any  farther. 


CHAPTER     VII. 

Of  Infancy. 


BY  the  term  Infancy,  in  this  chapter,  is  generally  meant 
that  portion  of  life  which  commences  at  birth,  and 
terminates  at  that  period  when  animals  have  acquired  the 
power  of  felf-prefervation,  without  any  afliftance  from 
their  parents.  This  period  varies  greatly  in  different  ani- 
mals. Of  courfe,  when  different  Ipecies  are  mentioned, 
the  term  infancy  mud  have  very  different  limitations  with 
regard  to  time. 

The  flate  of  infancy,  in  the  human  fpecies,  continues 
longer  than  in  any  other  animal.  Infants,  immediately 
after  birth,  are  indeed  extremely  helplefs,  and  require 
every  affiilarice  and  attention  from  the  mother.  Mod 
writers,  however,  on  this  fubject  feem  to  have  exaggerat- 
ed 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         i8c 

ed  not  only  the  imbecility,  but  the  miferies,  of  the  infant 
ftate.  '  An  infant/  fays  Button,  4  is  more  heiplefs  than 
'the  young  of  any  other  animal  :  Its  uncertain  life  feems 
'  every  moment  to  vibrate  on  the  borders  of  death.  It 
'  can  neither  move  nor  fupport  its  body  :  It  has  hardly 
c  force  enough  to  exift,  and  to  announce,  by  groans,  the 
'  pain  which  it  fufFers  ;  as  if  Nature  intended  to  apprife 
c  the  little  innocent,  that  it  is  born  to  mifcry^  and  that  it. 
4  is  to  be  ranked  among  human  creatures  only  to  partake 
c  of  their  infirmities  and  of  their  afflictions  *.' 

This  humiliating  picture  is  partly  juft,  and  partly  mif- 
reprefented.  Though  infants  remain  longer  in  a  date  of 
imbecility  than  the  young  of  other  animals,  they  are  by 
no  means  more  heiplefs.  The  inftant  after  birth.,  they  are 
capable  of  fucking  whatever  is  prefented  to  their  mouths. 
When  in  the  fame  condition,  the  young  of  the  opofTum, 
of  hares,  rabbits,  rats,  mice,  &c.  can  do  no  more.  They 
can  neither  move  nor  fupport  their  bodies.  Beiides,  ma- 
ny quadrupeds  are  deftitute  of  the  fenfe  of  feeing  for  fe- 
veral  days  after  birth.  But,  the  faculty  of  vifion  is  en- 
joyed by  infants  the  moment  after  they  come  into  the 
world.  This  faculty,  in  a  few  hours,  becomes  a  great 
fource  of  pleafure  and  amufement  to  them  ;  but  it  is  de- 
nied, for  fome  days,  to  many  other  fpecies  of  animals. 
The  young  of  rnoft  birds  are  equally  weak  and  heiplefs  as 
human  infants.  The  former  have  no  other  powers  but 
thofe  of  refpiration,  .opening  their  mouths  to  receive  food 
from  the  parent,  and  ejecting  the  excrement,  after  the 
food  has  been  properly  digefted.  If  infants  really  fufFer 
more  pain  and  mifery  than  other  animals  in  the  fame  ftate. 
Nature  feems  not  to  merit  that  feverity  of  cenfure  which 
{he  has  fometimes  received.  Men  in  fociety,  like  domef- 
tic  animals,  by  luxury,  by  artificial  modes  of  living,  by 
unnatural  and  vicious  habits,  debilitate  their  bodies,  and 
tranfmit  to  their  progeny  the  feeds  of  weaknefs  and  difeafe, 
the  effects  of  which  are  not  felt  by  thofe  who  live  more 
agreeably  to  the  general  ceconomy  and  intentions  of  Na- 
ture. The  children  of  favages,  for  the  fame  reafon,  whe- 
ther in  the  hunting  or  fhepherd  (tate,  are  more  robuft, 

more 

*  Buffon,  vol.  2.  pag,  369.  Tranflat.     S. 


THE     PHILOSOPHY 

more  healthy,  and  liable  to  fewer  difeafes,  than  thofe  pro- 
duced by  men  in  the  more  enlightened  and  refined  flages 
of  fociety.  Even  under  the  fame  governments,  and  in 
the  fame  (late  of  civilization,  a  (irnilar  gradation  of  imbe- 
cility and  difeafe  is  to  be  obferved.  The  children  of  men 
of  rank  and  fortune  are,  in  general,  more  puny,  debilitat- 
ed, and  difeafed,  than  thofe  of  the  peafant  or  artificer. 
Still,  however,  children,  in  their  progrefs  from  birth  to 
maturity,  have  innumerable  fources  of  pleafure,  which 
alleviate,  if  they  do  not  fully  compenfate,  the  pain  which 
muft  unavoidably  be  endured,  whether  in  a  more  natural 
or  more  artificial  flate  of  mankind.  If  luxury  and  civili- 
zation debilitate  the  conftitutions  of  children,  they  give 
rife  to  many  real  enjoyments  which  are  totally  unknown 
to  the  fovage.  His  wants  are  fewer  ;  but,  his  gratifica- 
tions are  more  than  proportionally  diminifhed. 

Though  the  period  of  human  infancy  be  proportionally 
long,  it  is  too  often  increafed  by  improper  management. 
In  this,  and  many  other  countries  of  Europe,  infants  have 
no  fooner  efcaped  from  the  womb  of  their  mother,  and 
have  enjoyed  the  liberty  of  flretching  their  limbs,  than 
they  are  condemned  to  a  more  cruel  and  unnatural  bon- 
dage. The  head  is  fixed  in  c/ne  petition  ;  the  legs  are 
fettered  ;  the  arms  are  bound  down  to  the  fides  ;  and  the 
little  innocents  are  laced  with  bandages  fo  ftrait  that  they 
cannot  move  a  fingle  joint.  The  reftraint  of  fwaddling 
bands  mull  be  productive  of  pain.  Their  original  inten- 
tion was  to  prevent  the  head  and  limbs  from  being  dif- 
torted  by  unnatural  or  hurtful  pofitions.  But  it  was  not 
confidered,  that  the  eiTorts  made  by  infants  to  difentangle 
themfelves,  have  a  greater  tendency  to  diflort  their  mem- 
bers than  any  poftures  they  could  amune,  if  they  enjoyed 
a  greater  degree  of  liberty.  But,  if  the  efforts  for  liberty 
made  by  infants  fettered  in  this  cruel  mariner  be  hurtful, 
the  (late  of  inactivity  in  which  they  are  forced  to  remain, 
is,  perhaps,  equally  noxious.  Infants,  as  well  as  all  young 
animals,  are  extremely  prone  to  motion.  It  promotes  the 
growth  and  expanfion  of  their  organs.  It  likewife  invi- 
gorates all  their  members,  and  facilitates  the  circulation 
ai^d  fecretion  of  their  different  fluids.  But,  when  infants 

are 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  183 

are  deprived  of  exercife,  or  of  the  power  of  performing 
their  natural  movements,  the  oppofite  effects  are  produc- 
ed. The  want  of  exercife  retards  their  growth  and  weak- 
ens their  conftitution.  Thofe  children,  therefore,  who 
are  allowed  full  freedom  of  motion,  will  always  be  the 
the  IB  oft  healthy  and  the  moft  vigorous.  We  are,  how- 
ever, happy  to  remark,  that,  by  the  efforts  of  philofophers 
and  phyficians,  the  practice  of  employing  tight  bandages 
has  of  late  become  lefs  general,  efpecially  among  intelli- 
gent midwives  and  mothers.  But,  to  eradicate  long  efta- 
blifhed  prejudices,  and  to  diffufe  more  enlightened  and 
falutary  notions  through  a  whole  country,  cannot  be  ef- 
fected without  a  great  length  of  time  and  vigorous  ex- 
ertions. 

From  what  caufes  or  circumftances  particular  modes 
in  the  management  of  infants  originate,  it  is  difficult  to 
determine.  But,  it  is  certain  that  favages,  and  the  ruder 
nations,  in  their  treatment  of  infants,  often  difcover  more 
difcernment,  and  propriety  of  conduct,  than  are  to  be 
found  in  the  moft  poliihed  ftages  of  fociety.  The  negroes, 
the  favages  of  Canada,  of  Virginia,  of  Brafil,  and  the 
natives  of  almoft  the  whole  of  South-America,  inftead 
of  uiing  fwaddling-bands,  lay  their  infants  naked  into 
hammocks,  or  hanging  beds  of  cotton,  or  into  cradles 
lined  with  fur.  The  Peruvians  leave  the  arms  of  their 
infants  perfectly  loofe  in  a  kind  of  fwathing-bag.  When 
a  little  older,  they  are  put,  up  to  the  middle,  in  a  hole 
dug  out  of  the  earth,  and  lined  with  linen  or  cotton. 
By  this  contrivance,  their  arms  and  head  are  perfectly 
free,  and  they  can  bend  their  bodies,  and  move  their 
arms  and  head,  without  the  fmalleft  danger  of  falling, 
or  of  receiving  any  injury.  To  entice  them  to  walk, 
whenever  they  are  able  to  ftep,  the  breait  is  prefented'to 
them  at  a  little  diftance.  The  children  of  negroes,  when 
very  young,  cling  round,  with  their  knees  and  legs,  one 
of  their  mother's  haunches,  and  grafp  the  breait  with 
their  hands.  In  this  pofition  they  adhere  fo  firmly,  that 
they  fupport  themfelves  without  any  affiftance,  and  con- 
tinue to  fuck  without  danger  of  falling,  though  the  mother 
moves  forward,  or  works  at  her  ufual  labour.  Thefe 

children. 


184  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

children,  at  the  end  of  the  fecond  month,  begin  to  creep 
on  their  hands  and  knees ;  and,  in  this  fituation,  they 
acquire,  by  habit,  the  faculty  of  running  with  furprifmg 
quicknefs. 

Savages  are  remarkably  attentive  to  the  cleanlinefs  of 
their  children.  Though  they  cannot  afford  to  change 
their  furs  fo  frequently  as  we  do  our  linen,  this  defed 
they  fupply  by  other  fubftances  of  no  value.  The  fa- 
vages  of  North-America  put  wood-dud,  obtained  from 
decayed  trees,  into  the  bottom  of  the  cradle,  and  renew 
it  as  often  as  it  is  neceffary.  Upon  this  powder  the  chil- 
dren are  laid,  and  covered  with  {kins.  This  powder  is 
very  foft,  and  quickly  abforbs  moifture  of  every  kind. 
The  children  in  Virginia  are  placed  naked  upon  a  board 
covered  with  cotton,  and  furnifhed  with  a  proper  hole 
for  tranfmitting  the  excrement.  This  practice  is,  like- 
wife,  almoft  general  in  the  eaflern  parts  of  Europe,  and 
particularly  in  Turkey.  It  has  another  advantage :  It 
prevents  the  difmal  effects  which  too  often  proceed  from 
the  negligence  of  nurfes. 

Many  northern  nations  plunge*  their  infants,  immedi- 
ately after  birth,  into  cold  water,  without  receiving  any 
injury.  The  Laplanders  expofe  their  new-born  infants 
on  the  fnow  till  they  are  almofl  dead  with  cold,  and  then 
throw  them  into  a  warm  bath.  During  the  firft  year, 
this  feemingly  harm  treatment  is  repeated  three  times 
every  day.  After  that  period,  the  children  are  bathed  in 
cold  water  thrice  every  week.  It  is  a  general  opinion  in 
northern  regions,  that  cold  bathing  renders  men  more 
healthy  and  robuft ;  and,  hence,  they  inure  their  chil- 
dren, from  their  very  birth,  to  this  habit.  In  the  ifthmus 
of  America,  the  inhabitants,  even  when  covered  with 
fweat,  plunge  themfelves  with  impunity  into  cold  water. 
The  mothers  bathe  in  cold  water,  along  with  their  in- 
fants, the  moment  after  delivery ;  yet,  much  fewer  of 
them  die  of  child-bearing,  than  in  nations  where  a  prac- 
tice of  this  kind  would  be  confidered  as  extremely  ha- 
zardous. 

With  regard  to  the  food  of  infants,  it  fliould  confift, 
for  the  firfl  two  months,  of  the  mother 'a  milk  alone.  A 

child 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  185 

child  may  be  injured  by  allowing  it  any  other  nourifh- 
ment  before  the  end  of  the  firft  month.  In  Holland,  in 
Italy,  in  Turkey,  and  over  the  whole  Levant,  children, 
during  the  firft  year,  are  not  permitted  to  tafte  any  other 
food.  The  Canadian  favages  nurfe  their  children  four 
or  five  years,  and  fometimes  fix  or  feven.  In  cafes  of 
neceffity,  the  milk  of  quadrupeds  may  fupply  that  of  the 
mother.  But,  in  fuch  cafes,  the,  child  mould  be  ob- 
liged to  fuck  the  animal's  teat ;  for  the  degree  of  heat  is 
always  uniform  and  proper,  and  the  milk,  by  the  aclion 
of  the  mufcles,  is  mixed  with  the  faliva,  which  is  a  great 
promoter  of  digeftion.  Several  robuft  peafants  have  been 
known  to  have  had  no  other  nurfes  than  ewes.  After 
two  or  three  months,  children  may  be  gradually  accuf- 
tomed  to  food  fomewhat  more  folid  than  milk.  Before 
the  teeth  moot  through  the  gums,  infants  are  incapable 
of  maftication.  During  that  period,  therefore,  it  is  ob- 
vious that  Nature  intended  they  mould  be  nouriihed  folely 
by  foft  fubftances.  But,  after  they  are  furnifhed  with 
teeth,  it  is  equally  obvious,  that  they  mould  occafionally 
be  allowed  food  of  a  more  folid  texture. 

The  bodies  of  infants,  though  extremely  delicate,  are 
lefs  affecled  by  cold  than  at  any  other  period  of  life. 
This  effect  may  be  produced  by  the  fuperior  quicknefs  in 
the  pulfation  of  the  heart  and  arteries  which  takes  place 
in  fmall  animals.  The  pulfe  of  an  infant  is  more  frequent 
than  that  of  an  adult.  The  pulfe  of  a  horfe,  or  of  an 
ox,  is  much  flower  than  that  of  a  man  ;  and  the  motion 
of  the  heart,  in  very  fmall  animals,  as  that  of  a  linnet, 
is  fo  rapid  that  it  is  irnpoffible  to  count  the  ftrokes. 

The  lives  of  children,  during  the  firft  three  or  four 
years,  are  extremely  precarious.  After  that  period,  their 
exiftence  becomes  gradually  more  certain.  According  to 
Simpfon's  tables  of  the  degrees  of  mortality  at  different 
ages,  it  appears,  that,  of  a  certain  number  of  infants 
brought  forth  at  the  fame  time,  more  than  a  fourth  part 
of  them  died  the  firft  year,  more  than  a  third  in  two 
years,  and  at  leaft  one  half  at  the  end  of  the  third  year. 
Mr.  Simpfon  made  this  experiment  upon  children  born  in 
London.  But,  the  mortality  of  children  is  not  nearly  fo 

A  a  great 


186  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

great  in  every  place ;  for  M.  Dupre  de  S.  Maur,  by  a 
number  of  experiments  made  in  France,  has  mown,  that 
one  half  of  the  children  born  at  the  fame  time  are  not 
extinct  in  lefs  than  feven  or  eight  years. 

To  treat  of  the  difeafes  of  children,  or  to  enter  minutely 
Into  the  caufes  which  contribute  to  the  great  mortality 
of  mankind  in  early  infancy,  is  no  part  of  our  plan.  In 
general,  thefe  caufes  are  to  be  referred  to  unnatural  prac- 
tices in  the  management  of  children,  introduced  by  fu- 
perftition,  by  ignorance,  and  by  foolifh  notions  arifing 
from  over-refinement,  from  prejudice,  and  from  hypothe- 
tical fyiiems,  while  the  ceconomy  and  analogy  of  Nature, 
in  the  conduct  and  fituation  of  the  inferior  animals,  are 
almoft  totally  neglecled.  Every  animal,  except  the  human 
fpecies,  brings  forth  its  young  without  any  foreign  aid. 
But,  incredible  numbers  of  children,  as  well  as  of  mo- 
thers, are  daily  maimed,  enfeebled,  and  deftroyed,  by 
the  ignorance  and  barbarity  of  midwives  and  accoucheurs. 
An  infant  is  no  fooner  brought  into  the  world  than  it  is 
crammed  with  phyfic.  Nature's  medicine  for  cleanfing 
the  bowels  of  infants  is  the  milk  of  the  mother.  But, 
midwives  abiurdly  imagine  that  drugs  will  anfwer  this 
purpole  much  better.  All  other  animals  that  give  fuck 
nurfe  their  own  offspring  :  But,  we  too  frequently  delegate 
this  tender  and  endearing  office  to  ftrange  women,  whole 
conilitutions,  habits  of  life,  and  mental  difpofitions,  arc 
often  totally  different  from  thofe  of  the  genuine  parent. 
Infants,  recently  after  birth,  frequently  fuffer  from  giving 
them,  inftead  of  the  mother's  milk.,  wine-whey,  water- 
gruel,  and  fimilar  unnatural  kinds  of  nourimment.  In 
this  period  of  their  existence,  however,  very  little  food, 
but  a  great  deal  of  reft,  is  neceiiliry  for  promoting  their 
health,  and  fecuring  their  eafe  and  tranquillity ;  for 
rants,  when  not  teazed  by  officious  cares,  ileep  almolt 
continually  during  feveral  weeks  after  birth.  Young  ani- 
mals are  naturally  fond  of  being  in  the  open  air  ;  but, 
our  infants,  particularly  in  large  towns,  are  almoft  perpe- 
tually {hut  up  in  warm  apartments,  which  both  relaxes 
their  bodies  and  enervate?  their  minds.  The  great  agility, 
ftrength.  and  fine  proportions  of  favages,  are  refults  of  a 

hardy 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         187 

hardy  education,  of  living  much  in  the  open  air,  and  of 
an  unreftrained  ufe  of  all  their  organs  the  moment  after 
they  come  into  the  world. 

In  young  animals,  as  well  as  in  infants,  there  is  a  gra- 
dual progrefs,  both  in  bodily  and  mental  powers,  from , 
birth  to  maturity.  Thefe  powers  are  unfolded  fooner  or 
later,  according  to  the  nature  and  exigencies  of  particu- 
lar fpecies.  This  progrefs,  in  man,  is  very  flow.  Man 
acquires  not  his  full  Mature  and  ftrength  of  body  till  fe- 
veral  years  after  the  age  of  puberty  :  And,  with  regard 
to  his  mind,  his  judgment  and  other  faculties  cannot  be 
faid  to  be  perfectly  ripe  before  his  thirtieth  year. 

In  early  infancy,  though  the  irnpreflions  received  from 
new  objecls  mult  be  ftrong,  the  memory  appears  to  be 
weak.  Many  caufes  may  concur  in  producing  this  effect. 
In  this  period  of  our  exiilence,  almoft  every  object  is  new, 
and,  of  courfe,  engroffes  the  whole  attention.  Hence 
the  idea  of  any  particular  object  is  obliterated  by  the  quick 
fucceffion  and  novelty  of  others,  joined  to  the  force  with 
which  they  act  upon  the  mind.  Haller  afcribes  this  want 
of  recollection  to  a  weaknefs  of  memory  ;  but,  it  feems  ra- 
ther to  proceed  from  a  confufion  which  necelfarily  refults 
from  the  number  and  ftrong  impreffions  of  new  obje£is. 
The  memory  ripens  not  fo  much  by  a  gradual  increafe  in 
the  ftrength  of  that  faculty,  as  by  a  diminution  in  the 
number  and  novelty  of  the  objects  which  folicit  attenti- 
on. In  a  few  years  children  are  enabled  to  exprefs  all 
their  wants  and  defires.  The  number  of  new  objeds 
daily  diminifhes,  and  the  impreiTions  made  by  thofe  with 
which  they  are  familiar  become  comparatively  imall  and 
unintcrefting.  Hence  their  habits  of  attention,  and  the 
ardour  of  their  minds,  begin  to  relax.  Inftead  of  a  ge- 
neral and  undiftinguifhing  gratification  of  their  fenfes, 
this  is  the  period  when  it  is  neceflary  to  ftimulate  children, 
by  various  artifices,  to  apply  their  minds  fteadily  to  the 
examination  of  particular  objects,  and  to  the  acquilition 
of  new  ideas  from  more  complicated  and  refined  fources 
of  information.  The  great  bafis  of  education  is  a  habit 
of  attention.  When  this  important  point  is  gained,  the 
minds  of  children  may  be  molded  into  any  form.  Buj: 

th:t 


i88  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

that  reftleiThefs,  and  appetite  for  motion,  which  Nature, 
for  the  wifeft  purpofes,  has  implanted  in  the  conititution 
of  all  young  animals,  mould  not  be  too  feverely  checked. 
Health  and  vigour  of  body  are  the  furefl  foundations  of 
flrcngth  and  improvement  of  mind. 

With  regard  to  the  duration  of  'infancy,  from  man  to 
the  infecl  tribes,  it  feems,  in  general,  to  be  proportioned, 
not  to  the  extent  of  life,  but  to  the  fagacity  or  mental 
powers  of  the  different  claffes  of  animated  beings.  The 
elephant  requires  30  years,  and  the  rhinoceros  20,  before 
they  come  to  perfect  maturity,  and  are  enabled  to  multi- 
ply their  fpecies.  But  thefe  years  mark  not  the  period 
of  infancy ;  for  the  animals,  in  a  much  fhorter  time,  are 
capable  of  procuring  their  own  food,  and  are  totally  inde- 
pendent of  any  aid  from  their  parents.  The  fame  remark 
is  applicable  to  the  camel,  the  horfe,  the  larger  apes,  &c. 
Their  ages  of  puberty  are  four,  two  arid  a  half,  and  three 
years.  But,  in  thefe  quadrupeds,  the  terminations  of  in- 
fancy are  much  more  early.  The  fmaller  quadrupeds, 
as  hares,  rats,  mice,  &c.  are  mature  at  the  end  of  the 
nril  year  after  birth  ;  and  the  Guiney-pig  and  rabbit  re- 
quire only  five  or  fix  months.  There  is  a  gradation  of 
mental  powers,  though  not  without  exceptions,  from  the 
larger  to  the  more  minute  quadrupeds  ;  for  the  dog  and 
fox,  whole  fagacity  is  very  great,  come  to  maturity  in 
one  year,  and  their  ftate  of  infancy  is  fhort.  But,  of  all 
animals,  the  infancy  and  helplefs  condition  of  man  are 
the  moft  prolonged ;  and  the  fuperiority  and  ductility  of 
his  mind  will  not  be  queilioned. 

The  infant  ftate  of  birds  is  very  fhort.  Mod  of  the 
feathered  tribes  arrive  at  perfection  in  lefs  than  fix  months; 
and  their  fagacity  is  comparatively  limited. 

With  regard  to  fifties,  if  the  whale  and  feal  kind,  who 
fuckle  their  young,  be  excepted,  they  receive  no  aid  from 
their  parents.  Fifties  no  fooner  efcape  from  the  eggs  of 
their  mother,  than  they  are  in  a  condition  to  procure 
nourifhrnent,  and  to  provide,  in  fome  meafure,  for  their 
own  fafety.  Of  the  fagacity  of  fifties,  owing  to  the  ele- 
ment in  which  they  live,  we  have  very  little  knowledge. 
Jjfut,  their  generat'character  is  ftupidity,  joined  to  a  vora- 
cious 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  189 

eious  and  indifcriminating  appetite  for  food.  In  oppofi- 
tion  to  an  almoft  general  law  of  Nature  which  fubfifts 
among  other  animals,  fifties  devour,  without  diflinttion, 
every  fmaller  or  weaker  animal,  whether  it  belongs  to  a 
different  fpecies,  or  to  their  own.  In  animals  of  a  much 
higher  order,  voracity  of  appetite  is  feldom  accompanied 
with  ingenuity  or  elegance  of  tafte.  When  the  principal 
attention  of  an  animal  is  engroifed  with  any  lenfual  appe- 
tite, it  is  a  fair  conclufion  that  the  mental  powers  are 
weak,  becaufe  they  are  chiefly  employed  upon  the  groiTefl 
of  all  objects.  If  this  obfervation  be  juft,  fifties  mud  be 
ranked  among  the  mod  ilupid  animals  of  equal  magni- 
tude and  activity. 

The  infant  ftate  of  infects  is  a  various  and  complicated 
fubject.  After  they  efcape  from  the  egg,  they  undergo  fo 
many  changes,  and  affume  fuch  a  variety  of  forms,  that  it 
is  difficult  to  determine  the  period  of  their  exiftence 
which  correfponds  to  the  condition  of  infancy  in  the  lar- 
ger animals.  Different  fpecies  remain  longer  or  fhorter 
in  the  form  of  worms,  caterpillars,  or  grubs,  before  they 
are  changed  into  chryfalids,  and  afterwards  into  flies. 
When  young,  like  other  animals,  they  are  final  1  and  fee- 
ble :  But,  even  in  their  moft  helplels  condition,  with  a 
very  few  exceptions,  Nature  is  their  only  nurfe.  They 
require  no  aid  from  their  parents,  who,  in  general,  are 
totally  unacquainted  with  their  progeny.  But,  as  for- 
merly obferved,  when  treating  of  inflinct,  the  mothers 
uniformly  depofit  their  eggs  in  fituations  which  afford 
both  protection  and  nourifhment  to  their  young.  The 
parent  fly,  according  to  the  fpecies,  invariably,  unlefs  re- 
ftrained  by  neceffity,  depofits  her  eggs  upon\  particular 
plants,  in  the  bodies  of  other  animals,  in  the  earth,  or  in 
water.  Whenever,  therefore,  an  infect  receives  exiilence 
in  its  primary  form,  all  its  wants  are  fupplied.  Though 
the  mother,  after  the  worms  iffue  from  the  eggs,  takes 
no  charge  of  her  offspring,  and  frequently  does  not  exifl 
at  the  time  they  come  forth,  yet,  by  an  unerring  and  pure 
inflinct,  fhe  uniformly  places  them  in  fituations  .where  the 
young  find  proper  nourifhment,  and  every  thing  neceffary 
to  their  feeble  condition. 

To 


1 90  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

To  this  general  law,  by  which  infects  are  governed, 
there  are  feveral  exceptions.  Bees,  and  ibme  other  flies, 
not  only  conftruct  nelts  for  their  young,  but  actually  feed, 
and  moft  anxioufly  protect  them. 

From  what  has  been  faid  concerning  the  infancy  of  ani- 
mals, one  general  remark  merits  attention.  Nature  has 
uniformly,  though  by  various  modes,  provided  for  the 
nourimment  and  prefervation  of  all  animated  beings  while 
they  are  in  an  infantine  iiate.  Though  the  human  ipecies 
continues  long  in  that  Hate,  the  attachment  and  iblicitude 
of  both  parents,  inftead  of  abating,  in  proportion  to  the 
time  and  labour  beftowed  on  their  progeny,  conftantly 
augment,  and  commonly  remain  during  life.  The  reci- 
procal affeclion  of  parents  and  children  is  one  of  the 
greateft  fources  of  human  happinefs.  If  the  love  of  chil- 
dren were  not  ftrong,  and  if  it  did  not  increafe  with  time, 
the  labour,  the  conftant  attention,  the  anxiety  and  fatigue 
of  mothers  would  be  infufferable.  But  here  Nature, 
whofe  wifdom  is  always  confpicuous,  makes  affection 
brave  every  difficulty,  and  footh  every  pain.  If  a  child 
be  ficldy,  and  require  uncommon  care,  the  exertions  of 
the  mother  are  wonderfully  fupported :  Pity  unites  with 
love  ;  and  thefe  two  paflions  become  fo  ftrong,  tint  hard- 
mips,  and  fatigue  of  every  kind,  are  fuffered  with  chear- 
fulnefs  and  alacrity. 

With  regard  to  the  inferior  tribes  of  animals,  Nature 
has  not  been  lefs  provident.  To  quadrupeds  and  birds 
me  has  given  a  ftrong  and  marked  affection  for  their  off- 
fpring,  as  long  as  parental  care  is  nec^fTary.  But,  when- 
ever the  young:  begin  to  be  in  a  condition  to  protect  and 
provide  for  themfelves,  the  attachment  of  the  parents  gra- 
dually fubfides  ;  they  become  regardlefs  of  their  offspring, 
at  laft  banifh  them,  with  blows,  from  their  prefence,  and, 
after  that  period,  feem  to  have  no  knowledge  of  the  ob- 
jects which  fo  lately  had  engroffed  all  the  attention  of 
their  minds,  and  occupied  all  the  induftry  and  labour  of 
their  bodies. — Here  the  dignity  and  fuperiority  of  man 
appear  in  a  confpicuous  light.  Inflead  of  lofing  the 
knowledge  of  his  offspring  after  they  arrive  at  maturity, 

his 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          191 

his  affection  expands,  and  embraces  grandchildren,  and 
great-grandchildren,  with  equal  warmth  as  if  they  had 
immediately  originated  from  himfelf. 


C  H  A  P  T  E  R     VIII. 

Of  the  Growth,  and  Food,,  of  Animals. 


IT  is  a  law  of  Nature,  that  all  organized  bodies, 
•  ther  animal  or  vegetable,  require  food,  in  order  to  ex- 
pand and  ftrengthen  their  parts  when  young,  and  to  pre- 
ferve  health  and  vigour  after  they  have  arrived  at  matu- 
rity. The  food  of  animals  is  digefted  in  the  ftomach  and 
inteftines  :  By  this  procefs  it  is  converted  into  chyle,  and 
abforbed  by  the  lacleal  veflels,  in  the  manner  defcribed  in 
Chap.  II.  pag.  50.  But  how  this  chyle,  or  nutritious  mat- 
ter, after  mingling  with  the  general  mafs  of  blood,  con- 
tributes to  the  growth,  and  repairs  the  wafte  of  animal 
bodies,  is  a  myfiery  which  probably  never  wall  be  unfold- 
ed by  human  fagacity.  It  has,  however,  like  many  other 
fecrets  of  Nature,  given  rife  to  feveral  ingenious  theories 
and  conjectures,  fome  of  which  mail  be  flightly  mentioned* 
Buffon  confiders  the  bodies  of  animals  and  vegetables 
as  what  he  calls  internal  moulds.  He  fays,  that  the  matter 
of  nutrition  is  not  applied  by  juxta-pofition,  but  that  it 
penetrates  the  whole  mafs ;  that  each  part  "receives  and 
applies  thole  particles  only  which  are  peculiar  and  ne- 
c  diary  to  its  own  nature ;  and  that,  by  this  means,  the 
whole  parts  of  the  body  are  gradually  and  proportionally 
augmented.  This  nutritive  matter,  he  remarks,  is  orga- 
nic, and  fimilar  to  the  body  itielf ;  and  hence  the  fize  of 
the  body  is  increafed,  without  any  change  in  its  figure  or 
fubftance.  The  matter  ejedeci  by  the  different  excretions 
he  confiders  to  be  a  feparation  of  the  dead  from  the  vivi- 
fying and  organic  parts  of  nourifhment,  which  are  diiiri- 

buted 


i92  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

buted  over  the  body  by  an  active  power :  This  power, 
fimilar  to  that  of  gravity,  penetrates  the  internal  fubftance 
of  the  body,  and  attracts  the  organic  particles,  which  are 
thus  puflied  on  through  all  its  parts.  As  thefe  organic 
paritcles  are  fimilar  to  the  body  itfelf,  their  union  with 
the  different  parts  augments  its  fize,  without  changing  its 
figure.  To  unfold  an  embryo  or  germ,  nothing  more  is 
requifite  than  that  it  contain,  in  miniature,  a  body  fimilar 
to  the  fpecies,  and  be  placed  in  proper  circumftances  for 
the  acquifition  of  frefh  organic  particles  to  increafe  its 
fize  and  unfold  its  members.  Hence  nutrition,  develope- 
ment,  and  reproduction,  are  all  effects  of  the  fame  caufe. 

This  account  of  the  nutrition  and  growth  of  organic 
bodies  has  the  appearance  of  an  ingenious  theory.  But 
an  attentive  reader  will  eafily  perceive,  that  it  contains  no 
other  information,  than  that  animals  and  vegetables  are 
nourifhed  and  grow  by  the  intervention  of  the  nutritious 
particles  of  food.  This  is  a  fact  univerfally  known  and 
admitted.  But,  we  are  flill  as  ignorant  as  ever  of  the  mode 
by  which  this  myfherious  operation  is  performed. 

Other  authors  have  fuppofed  that  the  brain  is  a  large 
gland ;  that  the  nerves  diftributed  over  the  whole  body 
are  the  ducts  or  canals  of  this  gland  ;  and  that  the  prin- 
cipal ufe  of  the  brain  is  to  fecrete  nutritious  matter,  and 
to  tranfmit  it  by  the  nerves  to  the  various  parts  of  the 
fyflem,  in  order  to  expand  the  different  organs  of  which 
it  is  compofed,  or  to  repair  the  wafte  they  may  have  fuf- 
fered  from  labour  and  other  caufes. 

This  theory  prefuppofes  that  the  nerves  are  tubular, 
and  contain  a  fluid  :  But  both  of  thefe  circumftances  have 
hitherto  eluded  the  refearch  of  the  ableft  anatomifts. 
Befides,  the  learned  and  indefatigable  Doctor  Monro,  in 
his  Nervous  Syjhm,  has  rendered  it  highly  improbable 
that  the  nerves  are  the  inftruments  of  nutrition.  The 
Doctor  reafons  in  the  following  manner. — On  comparing 
different  animals,  he  remarks,  we  find  no  correfpondence 
between  the  fize  of  their  brain,  the  rapidity  of  their  growth, 
or  the  quantity  of  nourimment  they  receive.  An  ox  is 
fix  times  heavier  than  a  man  ;  but  the  brain  of  an  ox 
weighs  not  above  a  fourth  part  of  that  of  a  man.  On  this 

fuppofi- 


OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.        193 

fuppofition,  an  ox's  brain  muft  fecrete  twenty-four  times 
more  nourifhment  than  a  portion  equal  to  it  of  the  hu- 
man brain.  In  two  years  an  o^  acquires  his  full  fize. 
His  brain  muft,  of  courfe,  be  fuppofed  to  tranfmit  daily 
through  the  nerves  two  or  three  pounds  of  flelh,  bones, 
&c.  But  the  much  larger  brain  of  a  man  does  not,  in 
an  equal  time,  add  to  his  body  a  fiftieth  part  of  that 
weight. 

6  In  monfters,'  fays  the  Doctor,  *  I  have  found  the 
c  limbs  very  plump,  though  the  brain  was  very  fmalL 

*  Nay,  in  fome  monfters,  the  head  has  been  wanting, 
c  yet  the  limbs  were  as  large  and  perfect  as  common.    In 
6  other  monfters,  with  one  head  and  two  bodies,  I  have 
4  found  that  the  brain  furnimed  the  nerves  of  the  head 
6  and  fpinal   marrow  on  the  right  fide  of  the  monfter  ; 

*  yet  the  left  fpinal  marrow,  at  the  top  of  which  there 
c  was  only  a  fmall  medullary  knob,  about  the  fize  of  a 
c  large  pea,  was  as  perfect  as  the   right  one;  and  that 
6  body,  and  its  limbs,  were  as  large,  and  as  well  nourimed, 
c  as  thofe  on  the  right  fide.     On  the  other  hand,  where 
c  there  were  two  heads  of  the  ordinary  fize,  and  only  one 
c  body,  the  limbs  were  not  remarkable  for  their  fize. 

c  We  fee  that  organs,  of  which  the  nerves  are  fo  fmall 
6  that  we  cannot  trace  them  by  diflettion',  as  the  bones', 
c  the  placenta,  &c.  grow  as  quickly  as  the  other  organs, 
6  in  which  the  nerves  are  large  and  numerous. 

4  A  year  after  I  had  cut  acrofs  the  fciatic  nerve  of  a 

*  living  frog,  I  could  not  perceive  that  limb  fmaller  than 
c  the  other ;  yet  it  continued  to  be  infenfible  and  moti- 
c  onlefs.     Nay,  when  I  had  broken  the  bones  of  the  in- 
4  fenfible  limb,  or  wounded  the  {kin  arid  flefh,  I  found 
c  that  the  callus  formed,  and  the  wounds  healed,  as  rea- 
c  dily  as  if  the  nerve  had  been  entire.     The  event  was 
c  the  fame  after  dividing,  tranfverfely,  the  lower  or  pofte- 

*  rior  end  of  the  fpinal  marrow  of  the  frog. 

*  It  is  well  known,'  concludes  our  author,  c  that,  if 
c  powder  of  madder  root  is  mixed  with  the  food  of  a 
c  young  animal,  the  bones  become  red ;  or,  if  a  bone 
c  has  been  broken,  that  the  callus  joining  its  parts  will 
c  be  red.  The  ferum  of  the  blood,  in  the  firft  ^lace,  is 

B  b  «  deeply 


1 94     ,         THE     PHILOSOPHY 

*  deeply  tinged ;  but  the  red  colour  of  the  bones  is  not 
6  folely,  nor  even  chiefly,  owing  to  the  coloured  ferum 
'  or  blood  circulating ;  for  I  have  found,  that,  after  in- 

*  j ecling  water  into  the  velfels  till  theie  were  emptied  of 
6  the  blood,  and  that  the  water  came  out  colourlefs,  the 

tinge  in  the  bones  appeared  equally  deep,  and  was, 
therefore,  plainly  owing  to  a  great  quantity  of  the  red 
earth  added  to  the  bones  in  the  time  of  their  growth. 
But  this  earth  was  not  tranfmitted  by  the  nerves  ;  for 
the  colour  of  thefe,  as  I  found,  remained  unchanged.' 
That  the  nutritious  particles  of  food  are  conveyed  by 
the  arteries,  and  applied  by  their  extremities  to  the  va- 
rious parts  of  animal  bodies  which  require  to  be  repaired 
or  expanded,  is  an  opinion  not  only  beft  fupported  by 
facts,  but  adopted  by  all  the  more  rational  phyfiologifts. 
The  principal  fads  and  arguments  in  fupport  of  this  the- 
ory mall  now  be  mentioned. 

The  chyle,  as  formerly  remarked,  is  converted  into 
blood.  The  glutinous  part  of  the  blood,  known  by  the 
name  of  coagulable  lymph,  refembles  the  white  of  an  egg. 
That  the  \vhite  of  an  egg  is  the  iole  nourifhment  of  the 
chick  before  its  exclufion,  is  an  eftablifhed  facl; ;  and  the 
conclufion,  from  analogy,  that  the  lymph  of  blood  is 
deftined  for  the  growth  and  reparation  of  animal  bodies, 
is  by  no  means  unnatural.  '  Without  repeating/  fays 
Dr.  Monro,  4  our  extreme  uncertainty  as  to  the  tubu- 
'  lar  nature  of  the  nerves,  and  the  improbability  that 
*•  canals  fo  exceedingly  minute  as  thofe  within  the  nerves 
6  mufl  be,  and  of  fuch  length,  are  deftined  for  the  con- 
*.  veyance  of  glue,  do  we  not  find,  that  this  very  matter 
c  is  Separated  by  the  exhalant  branches  of  the  arteries  of 

*  the  peritoneum,  pleurae,  and  other  fhut  facs,  and,  uni- 
c  verfally,  by  the  branches  of  the  arteries  of  the  cellular 

*  membrane? — The  kinds  of  matter   neceffary   for  the 
4  growth  and  nourifhment  of  our  feveral  organs  are  fo 

*  various  and  different  in  their  nature,  that  it  is  altogether 
c  incredible  they  can  be  furnifhed  by  the  nerves :  Thus, 
c  water  is  needed  for  the  extenilon  of  the  fore-part  of 
c  the  eye,  vifcici  matter  for   the  cryftalline  and  vitreous 
c  humours,  earth  for  the   growth   of  the  bones,  &c. ; 

4  whereas 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         195 

whereas  we  can  as  eafily  conceive  thefe  to  be  furnifhed 
:  by  the  arteries,  as  that,  in  one  place,  they  fliould  furnifh 
faliva,  in  another  bile,  &c. — As  the  wafte  of  the  feveral 
organs  is  carried  off  by  the  veffels,  either  circulating 
or  abforbent,  why  fhould  we  doubt  that  the  circulating 
fluids  can  add  a  particle  in  the  place  of  one  that  has 
been  carried  off,  or  that  an  artery  can  fupply  what  has 
been  abforbed  by  a  lymphatic  vein  ?  As  it  is  granted 
that  the  fecretion  of  all  other  kinds  of  matter  in  the 
bodies  of  animals  is  performed  by  the  branches  of  the 
arteries,  is  it  not  incredible  that  there  fliould  be  an  ex- 
ception to  the  general  rule  in  the  fecretion  of  the  nou- 
rifhment?  Surely  that  power  which  can  convert  the 
food  into  blood,  and  can  change  the  'blood  into  bile  and 
faliva,  is  fufficient  to  convert  it  into  nourifhmerit. 
*  1  will  now  add,'  continues  our  author,  c  that  in  calli, 
cicatrices,  or  accretions,  there  are  numberlefs  new  formed 
veffels  filled,  in  the  living  animal,  with  red  blood,  and 
which  can  readily  be  injected.  Nay,  I  found  by  experi- 
ment, that  fuch  new  formed  veffels,  produced  by  the 
oppoiite  fides  of  a  wound,  unite  into  continued  canals, 
or  tmaftomofe. — If,  then,  in  a  callus,  new  earthy  or 
offeous  fibres,  and  new  veflels,  can  be  formed  by  the 
original  arteries,  muft  we  not  believe  that  the  wafte  of 
this  earth,  and  of  thefe  veffels,  can  be  ever  after  fup- 
plied  by  the  arteries  which  formed  them  ?  If  fo,  are  we 
not  to  conclude,  that  the  wafte  of  other  -arteries,  and  of 
other  organs,  is  fupplied  in  the  fame  manner  from  the 
arteries  ?  If  the  quantity  of  blood  naturally  circulating 
through  a  limb  be  diminifhed,  as  by  tying  the  trunk  of 
the  brachial  artery,  in  the  operation  for  an  aneurifm,  the 
arm  lofes  part  of  its  ftrength  and  fize  ;  but  the  lofs  is  left 
than,  at  firft  fight,  might  be  expected ;  becaufe  the  ana- 
ftomofmg  (or  uniting)  canals  foon  come  to  be  greatly 
enlarged. 

'  Upon  the  whole,'  the  Doctor  concludes,  '  there  are 
few  points  in  phyfiology  fo  clear,  as,  i.  That  the  arte- 
ries prepare,  and  directly  fecrete  the  nourifhment  in  all 
our  organs ;  and,  2.  That  the  nerves  do  not  contain  nor 

6  conduft 


196  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

*  conduct  the  nourifhment,  but,  by  enabling  the  arteries 
6  to  act  properly,  contribute  indirectly  to  nutrition.' 

The  ingenious  Charles  Bonnet  endeavours  to  fliow,  that 
the  parts  of  all  organized  bodies  are  contained,  in  mini- 
ature, in  germs,  or  buds ;  that  thefe  germs,  when  placed 
In  proper  filiations,  gradually  unfold  and  increafe  in 
magnitude ;  that  the  various  members  of  animals  and 
vegetables  are  expanded,  both  longitudinally  and  laterally, 
by  food  adapted  to  their  reipecHve  natures  ;  and  that  every 
germ  actually  includes  the  rudiments  of  the  whole  ani- 
mals cr  vegetables  which  are  to  proceed  from  it  during 
all  fucceffive  generations. 

With  regard  to  vegetables,  it  is  true,  that  the  feed  firft 
produces  a  finall  tree,  which  it  contained  in  miniature 
within  its  lobes.  At  the  top  of  this  fmall  tree  a  bud  or 
germ  is  formed^  which  contains  the  ihoot  or  tree  that  is 
to  fpring  next  feafon.  In  the  fame  manner,  the  fmall  tree 
of  the  fecond  year  produces  a  bud  which  includes  a  tree 
'for  the  third  year ;  and  this  procefs  uniformly  goes  on  as 
long  as  the  tree  continues  to  vegetate.  At  the  extremity 
of  each  branch,  buds  are  likewife  formed,  which  contain, 
In  miniature,  trees  fimilar  to  that  of  the  firft  year.  From 
thefe,  and  fimilar  facts,  it  is  concluded,  that  all  thefe 
germs  were  contained  in  the  original  feed  ;  for  the  firft 
bud  was  fucceeded  by  a  fimilar  bud,  which  was  not  un- 
folcled  till  the  fecond  year,  and  the  third  bud  was  not 
expanded  till  the  third  year  ;  and,  of  courfe,  the  feed 
may  be  faid  to  have  contained  not  only  the  whole  buds 
which  would,  be  formed  in  a  hundred  years,  but  all  the 
feeds,  and  all  the  individuals,  which  would  fucceilively 
arrive  till  the  final  deftruttion  of  the  fpecies. 

Thefe  facts  are  known  and  eftablilhed  ;  but  the  reafon- 
ing  deduced  from  them  is  fallacious,  or,  what  amounts 
to  the  fame  thing,  is  perfectly  incompreheniible.  The 
feed  is  unqueftionably  the  origin  or  caufe  of  all  future 
individuals,  which  may  be  infinite.  But  the  idea  that  it 
really  contained  the  germs  of  all  the  individuals  which 
were  to  fpring  from  it  as  a  fource,  is  not  only  abfurd, 
but  exceeds  ail  the  powers  of  human  imagination  to  con- 
ceive. Theories  of  this  kind,  of  which  there  are  too 

many 


OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.         197 

many  in  almoft  every  department  of  fcience,  hardly  merit 
examination.  Every  feed,  and  every  animal,  according 
to  this  doctrine,  includes  in  its  own  body  an  infinite 
poflerity  !  If  we  affent  to  reaforangs  of  this  kind,  we  mufl 
lofe  ourfelves  in  the  labyrinths  of  infinity  ;  and,  inftead 
of  throwing  light  upon  the  fubject,  we  mall  involve  it  in 
tenfold  darknefs.  All  we  know  concerning  the  nature  of 
growth  and  nutrition  is  extremely  limited.  We  know 
that,  in  the  animal  kingdom,  nutrition  is  performed  by 
means  of  the  blood,  which  is  forcibly  propelled  through 
every  part  of  the  body  by  the  action  of  the  heart  and  ar- 
teries ;  and  that  vegetables,  in  a  fimilar  manner,  are 
nourifhed  by  the  afcenfion  and  diflribution  of  the  fap. 
But,  how  the  nutritive  particles  are  applied  to  the  various 
parts  of  organized  bodies,  and  how  they  expand  the  or- 
gans, or  repair  their  continual  wafte  and  lofs  of  fubftance, 
we  mufl  content  ourfelves  with  remaining  in  perpetual 
ignorance. 

In  general,  the  food  of  animals,  and  particularly  of 
the  human  fpecies,  confifts  of  animal  and  \?egetable  fub- 
ftances,  combined  with  water,  or  other  fluids.  The  Gen- 
too,  and  fome  other  fouthern  nations,  live  entirely  upon 
vegetable  diet.  From  the  accounts  we  have  of  the  diffe- 
rent regions  of  the  earth,  it  appears,  that  the  natives  of 
warm  climates,  where  the  cultivation  of  plants  is  praclifed, 
employ  a  greater  proportion  of  vegetable  food  than  in  the 
more  northern  countries.  The  inhabitants  of  Lapland 
have  little  or  no  dependence  on  the  fruits  of  the  earth. 
They  neither  fow  nor  reap.  They  (till  remain,  and,  from 
the  nature  of  their  climate,  muft  forever  remain,  in  the 
fhepherd  flate.  Their  comparative  riches  confift  entirely 
of  the  number  of  rein-deer  pofleffed  by  individuals. 
Their  principal  nourifhment  is  derived  from  the  flefh  and 
milk  of  thefe  animals.  In  autumn,  however,  they  catch 
great  multitudes  of  fowls,  mod  of  them  of  the  game  kind. 
With  thefe,  while  frefh,  they  not  only  fupply  their  prefent 
wants,  but  dry  and  prefer ve  them  through  the  winter. 
They  likewife  kill  hares,  and  other  animals,  which  abound 
in  the  woods  and  mountains  ;  but  the  flefh  of  the  bear  is 
their  greateil  delicacy.  In  their  lakes  and  rivers,  they 

have 


198  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

have  inexhauflible  itores  of  fifties,  which,  in  fummer  and 
autumn,  they  dry  in  the  fun,  or  in  ftoves,  and  in  winter 
they  are  preferved  by  the  froft.  The  Laplanders  drink 
water,  or  animal  oils ;  but  never  tafle  bread  or  fait. 
They  live  in  a  pure  air,  and  have  fufficient  exercife. 
Their  conftitutions  are  attempered  to  the  coldnefs  of  the 
climate ;  and  they  are  remarkable  for  vigour  and  longe- 
vity. The  gout,  the  (tone,  the  rheumatifm,  and  many 
other  dileafes  which  torture  the  luxurious  in  milder 
climes,  are  totally  unknown  to  them.  With  the  few  gifts 
which  Nature  has  bellowed  on  them,  they  remain  fatisrled, 
and  live  happily  among  their  mountains  and  their  itorms. 
If  fouthern  nations  afford  examples  of  people  who  feed 
nearly  on  vegetables  alone,  the  Laplanders  furnim  one  of 
the  oppofite  extreme ;  for  they  are  almoft  entirely  carnivo- 
rous animals. 

To  Norway,  Sweden,  Germany,  and  Britain,  the  fame 
obfervation  is  applicable.  In  thefe  countries,  animal  food 
is  much  more  ufed  than  in  France,  Spain,  Italy,  Barbary, 
and  the  other  fouthern  regions  of  the  globe.  Many  rea- 
fons  may  be  affigned  for  thefe  differences  in  the  food  of 
nations.  The  natural  productions  of  the  earth  depend 
entirely  on  the  climate.  In  warm  climates,  the  vegetables 
which  grow  fpontaneouily  are  both  more  luxuriant  and 
more  various.  The  number  and  richnefs  of  their  fruits 
far  exceed  thofe  of  colder  regions.  From  this  circum- 
ftance,  the  natives  muft  be  flimulated  to  ufe  a  proportion- 
ally greater  quantity  of  vegetable  food ;  and  we  learn 
from  hiilory,  and  from  travellers,  that  this  is  actually 
the  cafe.  In  cold  countries,  on  the  contrary,  vegetables 
are  not  only  fewer,  but  more  rigid,  and  contain  lefs  nou- 
rimment.  The  inhabitants,  accordingly,  are  obliged  to 
live  principally  on  animal  fubftances.  If  we  examine  the 
mode  of  feeding  in  different  nations,  it  will  be  found, 
that,  in  proportion  as  men  approach  or  recede  from  the 
poles,  a  greater  or  lefs  quantity  of  animal  and  vegetable 
fubftances  are  ufed  in  their  diet.  Cuftom,  laws,  and  re- 
ligious rites,  it  mufl  be  allowed,  produce  considerable  dif- 
ferences in  the  articles  of  food,  among  particular  nations, 
which  have  no  dependence  on  climate,  or  the  natural 

productions 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         199 

produ&ions  of  the  earth.  But,  when  men  are  not  fetter- 
ed or  prejudiced  by  extraneous  circumftances,  or  political 
inftitutiohs,  the  nature  of  their  food  is  invariably  deter- 
mined by  the  climates  they  inhabit.  The  variety  of  food, 
in  any  country,  is  likewife  greatly  influenced  by  culture, 
and  by  imitation.  Commerce  occafionally  furnimes  new 
fpecies  of  food,  particularly  of  the  vegetable  kind.  .  In 
Scotland,  till  about  the  beginning  of  this  century,  the 
common  people  lived  almoft  entirely  upon  grain.  Since 
that  period,  the  culture  and  ufe  of  the  potato,  of  many 
fpecies  of  coleworts,  and  of  fruits,  have  been  introduced, 
and  univerfally  diffufed  through  the  nation. 

Whether  man  was  originally  intended  by  Nature  to 
live  folely  upon  animal  or  vegetable  food,  is  a  queftion 
which  has  been  much  agitated  both  by  the  ancients  and 
the  moderns.  Many  fads  and  circumftances  concur  in 
eftablifhing  the  opinion,  that  man  was  defigned  to  be 
nourifhed  neither  by  animals  nor  vegetables  folely,  but 
by  a  mixture  of  both.  Agriculture  is  an  art,  the  inven- 
tion of  which  muft  depend  on  a  number  of  fortuitous 
circumftances.  It  requires  a  long  fucceflion  of  ages  be- 
fore favage  nations  learn  this  art.  They  depend  entirely 
for  their  fubfiftence  upon  hunting  wild  animals,  fifhing, 
and  fuch  fruits  as  their  country  happens  fpontaneoufly  to 
produce.  This  has  uniformly  been  the  manner  of  living 
among  all  the  favage  nations  of  which  we  have  any  pro- 
per knowledge ;  and  feems  to  be  a  clear  proof,  that  ani- 
mal food  is  by  no  means  repugnant  to  the  nature  of  man. 
Befides,  the  furface  of  the  earth,  even  in  the  moft  luxu- 
riant climates,  and  though  affifted  by  culture,  is  not 
capable  of  producing  vegetable  food  insufficient  quantity 
to  fupport  the  human  race,  after  any  region  of  it  has 
become  fo  populous  as  Britain,  France,  and  many  other 
nations.  The  general  practice  of  mankind,  when  not 
reftrained  by  prejudice  or  fuperftition,  of  feeding  promif- 
cuoufiy  on  animal  and  vegetable  fubftances,  is  a  ftrong 
indication  that  man  is,  partly  at  leaft,  a  carnivorous  ani- 
mal. The  Gentoos,  though  their  chief  diet  be  vegeta- 
bles, afford  no  proper  argument  againft  this  reafoning. 
They  are  obliged,  by  their  religion,  to  abftaiu  from  the 

flefh 


200  T  H  E     P  H  I  L  O  S  O  P  H  Y 

flefh  of  animals  ;  and  they  are  allowed  to  ufe  milk,  which 
is  a  very  nourifhing  animal  food.  Notwithdanding  this 
indulgence,  the  Gentoos,  in  general,  are  a  meagre,  fickiy, 
and  feeble  race.  In  hot  climates,  however,  a  very  great 
proportion  of  vegetable  diet  may  be  ufed  without  any  bad 
coniequences. 

Other  arguments,  tending  to  the  fame  conclufion,  are 
derived,  not  from  the  cufloms  or  practices  of  particular 
nations,  but  from  the  ftruclure  of  the  human  body.  All 
animals  which  feed  upon  vegetables  alone,  as  formerly 
remarked,  have  flomachs  and  interlines  proportionally 
larger  than  thole  that  live  folely  on  animal  fubftances. 
Man,  like  the  carnivorous  tribes,  is  furnifhed  with  cutting 
and  canine  teeth,  and,  like  the  graminivorous,  with  a 
double  row  of  grinders.  The  dimenfions  of  his  fromach 
and  interlines  likewife  hold  a  mean  proportion  b  .^tv/cen 
thefe  two  tribes  of  animals,  which  differ  fo  efTentially  in 
their  characters  and  manners. — From  thefe,  and  firnilar 
arguments,  I  have  no  hefitation  to  conclude,  that  a  pro- 
mifcuous  ufe  of  animal  and  vegetable  fubdances  is  no  de- 
viation from  the  original  nature  or  deftination  of  mankind, 
whatever  country  they  may  inhabit. 

With  regard  to  the  different  proportions  of  animal  and 
vegetable  food  which  are  mod  accommodated  to  the  health 
and  vigour  of  mankind,  no  general  rule  can  be  given  that 
could  be  applicable  to  different  climates,  and  to  the  dif- 
ferent conflitutions  of  individuals.  Animal  food,  it  is 
certain,  gives  vigour  to  the  body,  and  may  be  ufed  more 
liberally  by  the  active  and  laborious  than  by  thofe  who 
lead  a  fludious  and  fedentary  life.  A  great  proportion  of 
vegetable  food,  and  particularly  of  bread,  is  confidered, 
by  the  mod  eminent  phyficians,  as  bed  adapted  for  men 
who  are  fond  of  fcience  and  literature ;  for,  full  meals  of 
animal  food  load  the  ftomach,  and  feldom  fail  to  produce 
dulnefs,  yawning,  indolence,  and  many  difeafes  which 
often  prove  fatal. 

The  remainder  of  this  chapter,  from  unavoidable  cau- 
fes,  mud  confid  of  obfervations  of  a  more  defultory  kind. 

Mod  animals,  when  they  live  long  on  a  particular  fpe- 
cies  of  food,  are  apt  to  be  arTe&ed  with  difeafes,  which 

generally 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         201 

generally  arife  from  cpftivenefs,  or  its  oppofite.  The 
Guiney-pigs,  after  being  confined  for  fome  time  to  cole- 
worts,  contract  a  ioofenefs,  which  often  terminates  in 
denth.  But,  when  thofe  animals  are  at  full  liberty,  they 
prevent  this  effect,  by  an  inftinct  which  teaches  them  to 
make  frequent  changes  from  moid  to  dry  food:  If  they 
are  reftrained  in  their  choice,  they  will  e?t,  as  a  fucce- 
daneum,  paper,  linen,  and  even  woollen  cloths. 

Though  fome  animals,  and  many  vegetables,  would  be 
noxious  to  man,  if  ufed  as  food,  yet,  in  general,  that 
matter  is  more  regulated  by  chance  and  cufcom  than  by 
rational  motives.  By  experience,  and  the  aid  of  our  fen- 
fes,  we  acquire  a  tolerable  facility  of  diftinguifhing  faiu- 
tary  from  noxious  food.  Other  animals  felect  their  food 
inftinctively  ;  and  their  choice  is  chiefly  determined  by 
the  fenfe  of  fmelling.  The  fpaniel  hunts  his  prey  by  the 
fcent ;  but  the  grey-hound  depends  principally  upon  the 
ufe  of  his  eye.  When  the  grey-hound  lofes  fight  of  a 
hare,  he  inftantly  gives  up  the  chace,  and  looks  keenly 
around  him,  but  never  applies  his  nofe,  in  order  to  dii- 
cover  the  track.  Some  rapacious  animals,  as  wolves  and 
ravens,  difcover  carrion  at  diftances,  which,  if  we  were 
to  judge  from  our  own  fenfe  of  fmelling,  would  appear  to 
be  altogether  incredible.  Others,  as  eagles,  hawks,  gulls, 
&c.  furprife  us  no  lefs  by  the  acutenefs  of  their  fight. 
They  perceive,  from  great  heights  in  the  air,  mice,  finall 
birds,  and  minute  fifties  in  the  water. 

One  great  caufe  of  the  diifufion  of  animals  over  every 
part  of  the  globe,  is  to  be  derived  from  the  diverfity  of 
appetites  for  particular  fpecies  of  food,  implanted,  by' Na- 
ture in  the  different  tribes.  Some  fiflies  are  only  to  be 
found  in  certain  latitudes.  Some  animals  inhabit  the  fri- 
gid, others  the  torrid  zones  ;  fome  frequent  defarts,  moun- 
tains, woods,  lakes,  and  meadows.  In  their  choice  of 
fituation,  they  are  uniformly  determined  to  occupy  fuch 
places  as  furnifh  them  with  food  accommodated  to  their 
natures-.  Monkeys,  the  elephant,  and  rhinoceros,  fix  on 
the  torrid  zone,  becaufe  they  feed  on  vegetables  which 
flourilh  there  during  the  whole  year.  The  rein-deer  in- 
habit the  cold  regions  of  the  north,  becaufe  thefe  coun- 

C  c  tries 


-os  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

tries  produce  the  greateft  quantity  of  the  lichen,  a  fpecieg 
of  mofs,  which  is  their  beloved  food.  The  pelican  makes 
choice  of  dry  and  defert  places  to  lay  her  eggs.  When 
her  young  are  hatched,,  fhe  is  obliged  to  bring  water  to 
them  from  great  di (lances.  To  enable  her  to  perform 
this  neceffary  office,  Nature  has  provided  her  with  a  large 
fac,  which  extends  from  the  tip  of  the  upper  mandible  of 
her  biil  to  the  throat,  and  holds  as  much  water  as  will 
fupply  her  brood  for  feveral  days.  This  water  me  pours 
into  the  neil  to  cool  her  young,  to  allay  their  third,  and 
to  teach  them  to  fwim.  Lions,  tigers,  and  other  rapaci- 
ous animals,  refort  to  thefe  nefts,  drink  the  water,  and 
are  faid  not  to  injure  the  young*.  vThe  goat  afcends 
the  rocky  precipice,  to  ciop  the  leaves  of  fhrubs,  and  other 
favourite  plants.  The  floth  and  the  fquirrel  feed  upon 
the  leaves  and  the  fruit  of  trees,  and  are,  therefore,  fur- 
nifhed  with  feet  which  enable  them  to  climb.  Water- 
fowls live  upon  fifhes,  infecls,  and  the  eggs  of  fifhes. 
Their  bill,  neck,  wings,  legs,  and  whole  (truclure,  are 
nicely  fitted  for  enabling  them  to  catch  the  food  adapted 
to  their  natures.  Their  feeding  upon  the  eggs  of  fifhes 
accounts  for  that  variety  of  fifhes  which  are  often  found 
in  lakes  and  pools  on  the  tops  of  hills,  and  on  high  grounds 
remote  from  the  fea  and  from  rivers.  The  bat  and  the 
goat-fucker  fly  about  during  the  night,  when  the  whole 
air  is  filled  with  moths,  and  other  nocturnal  infects.  The 
bear,  who  acquires  a  prodigious  quantity  of  fat  during 
the  fumrner,  retires  to  his  den,  when  provifions  fail  him, 
in  winter.  For  feme  months,  he  receives  his  fole  nou- 
rifhment  from  the  abforption  of  the  fat  which  had  been 
previouily  accumulated  in  the  cellular  membrane. 

A  glutton  f,  brought  from  Siberia  to  Drefden,  eat 
every  day,  fays  M.  Klein,  thirty  pounds  of  flefh  without 
being  fatisfied.  This  fact  indicates  an  amazing  digefiive 
power  in  fo  fmall  a  quadruped  ;  for  the  flory  of  his  fqueez- 
ing  his  fides  between  two  trees,  in  order  to  make  him 
diigorge,  is  a  mere  fable  J. 

Siberia,  Kamtfchatka,  and  the  polar  regions,  are  fup- 

pofed 

*  Arnoen.  Acad.  vol.  2.  p.  41.     S. 

t  The  Muftrla  Gulo  of  Linnaeus;  the  Gulo  of  Dr.  Pallas. 

+  Gaz.  L'itteraire,  vol.  1.  p,-|8i.     S. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.        203 

pofed  to  be  the  abodes  of  mifery  and  defolation.  They 
are,  it  mud  be  allowed,  infeded  with  numerous  tribes  of 
bears,  foxes,  gluttons,  and  other  rapacious  animals.  But, 
it  mould  be  confidered,  that  thefe  voracious  animals  fup- 
ply  the  natives  with  both  food  and  clothing.  To  elude 
the  attacks  of  ferocity,  and  to  acquire  poflemon  of  the 
ikins  and  carcafes  of  fuch  creatures,  the  indudry  and 
dexterity  of  favage  nations  are  excited.  The  furs  are 
demanded  by  foreigners.  The  inhabitants  by  this  means 
learn  commerce  and  the  arts  of  life  ;  and,  in  the  progrefs 
of  time,  bears  and  wild  beads  become  the  indruments  of 
polifhing  a  barbarous  people.  Thus,  the  mod  fubdantial 
good  often  proceeds  from  apparent  misfortune* 

There  is  hardly  a  plant  that  is  not  rejected  as  food  by 
fome  animals,  and  ardently  defired  by  others.  The  horfe 
yields  the  common  water-hemlock  J  to  the  goat,  and  the 
cow  the  long-leafed  water-hemlock  ||  to  the  fheep.  The 
goat,  again,  leaves  the  aconite  §,  or  bane-berries,  to  the 
horfe,  &c.  Plants  which  afford  proper  nourimment  to 
fome  animals,  are  by  others  avoided,  becaufe  they  would 
not  only  be  hurtful,  but  even  poifonous.  Hence  no  plant 
is  abfolutely  deleterious  to  animal  life.  Poifon  is  only  a 
relative  term.  The  euphorbia,  or  fpurge,  fo  noxious  to 
man,  is  greedily  devoured  by  fome  of  the  infed:  tribes. 

It  is  a  maxim  univerfally  received,  that  every  animal, 
after  birth,  grows,  or  acquires  an  augmentation  of  fize* 
The  fpider-fly,  however,  affords  an  exception.  The  mo- 
ther lays  an  egg  fo  difproportionally  large,  that  no  perfon, 
without  the  aid  of  experience,  could  believe  it  to  have 
been  produced  by  this  infecl:.  When  the  egg  is  hatched, 
a  fly  proceeds  from  it,  which,  at  the  moment  of  birth, 
equals  the  parent  in  magnitude.  Upon  a  drifter  exa- 
mination of  this  egg,  it  has  been  difcovered,  that  the 
infecl:,  while  in  the  belly  of  its  mother,  undergoes  a 
transformation  into  the  nympth  or  chryfalis  date ;  and 
that,  indead  of  a  worm,  a  fly  is  produced  from  it,  of 
the  fame  dimenfions  as  the  parent.  This  difcovery,  how-, 
ever,  does  not  diminifli  our  wonder,  that  any  animal 
fhould  a&ually  give  birth  to  a  fubdance  as  large  as  its 


o 

own 


I  Phellandrium  aquaticum.  \\  Cicuta  lirofa.  ^  Aconitum  Nabdlus. 


204  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

own  body,  and  that  its  fize  fliould  never  afterward r,  re- 
ceive any  augmentation  ^f. 

When  caterpillars,  fome  time  before  their  change,  are 
deprived  of  food,  they  diminim  to  at  lead  one  half  of 
their  former  fize.  Their  chryfalids,  of  courfe,  as  well  as 
the  butterflies  which  proceed  from  them,  are  proportion- 
ally fmall.  From  this  fad  we  learn  the  importance  of 
feeding  all  young  animals  well  till  they  acquire  their  full 
growth. 

It  is  a  remark  of  the  ingenious  Reaumur,  that  fuch 
infects  as  feed  upon  dead  carcafes,  and  whofe  fecundity 
is  great,  never  attack  live  animals.  The  flem-fiy  depofits 
her  eggs  in  the  bodies  of  dead  animals,  where  her  pro- 
geny receive  that  nourifhment  which  is  bed  fuited  to  their 
confiitution.  But  this  fly  never  attempts  to  lay  her  eggs 
in  the  Hefh  of  found  and  living  animals.  If  Nature  had 
determined  her  to  obferve  the  oppofite  conducl,  men, 
quadrupeds,  and  birds,  would,  have  been  dreadfully  af- 
flided  by  the  ravages  of  this  fmgle  infect.  Left  it  might 
be  imagined  that  the  flefh-fly  fele&ed  dead,  inflead  of  live 
animals,  becaufe,  in  depofiting  her  eggs,  me  was  unable 
to  pierce  the  ikin  of  the  latter,  M.  de  Reaumur  made  the 
following  experiment,  which  removed  every  doubt  that 
might  arife  on  the  fubjecl.  He  carefully  pulled  off  all 
the  feathers  from  the  thigh  of  a  young  pigeon,  and  ap- 
plied to  it  a  thin  flice  of  beef,  in  which  there  were  hun- 
dreds of  maggots.  The  portion  of  beef  was  not  fufficient 
to  maintain  them  above  a  few  hours.  He  fixed  it  to  the 
thit:h  by  a  bit  of  gauze  ;  and  he  prevented  the  pigeon 
from  moving,  by  tying  its  wings  and  legs.  The  mag- 
go;  roori  fhewed  that  their  prefent  fituation  was  difagree- 
able  to  them.  Mod  of  them  retired  from  under  the  ilice 
of  beef;  and  the  few  that  remained  perimed  in  a  ihort 
time.  Their  death  was  probably  occafioned  by  the  degree 
of  beat  in  the  pigeon's  body  being  greater  than  their  con- 
ftitution  could  bear.  Upon  the  fame  pigeon  M.  de 
Reaumur  performed  .another  experiment.  He  took  off 
the  ikin  from  its  thigh,  laid  bare  the  ile-h,  and  applied 
immediately  another  flice  of  beef  full  of  maggots.  The 

animals 

f  Reaumur,  torn.  6.  p.  48  ; — and  Bonnet,  iom,  3.  p,  363. — 369.     S. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  205 

unji$als  discovered  evident  marks  of  uneafinefs ;  and  all 
of  th«jra  that  remained  on  the  flefli  of  the  pigeon  were 
rived  of  life,  as  in  the  former  experiment,  in  lefs  than 
an  hour.  Thus  the  degree  of  heat  that  is  neceifary  to 
i  worms  as  inhabit  the  interior  parts  of  animals,  is 
deftrudlive  to  thole  fpecies  which  Nature  has  deftined  to 
feed  upon  the  flelh  of  dead  animals.  Hence  the  worms 
fometimes  found  in  ulcerous  fores,  mull  belong  to  a  diffe- 
rent fpecies  from  thofe  upon  which  the  above  experiments 
were  made. 

The  growth  of  fome  worms,  which  feed  upon  animal 
or  vegetable  fubftances,  is  extremely  rapid.  Redi  remark- 
ed, that  thefe  creatures,  the  day  after  they  efcaped  from 
the  egg,  had  acquired  at  leafl  double  their  former  fize. 
At  this  period  he  weighed  them,  and  found  that  each 
worm  weighed  feven  grains ;  but  that,  on  the  day  pre- 
ceding, it  required  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  of  them  to 
weigh  a  fingle  grain.  Hence,  in  about  the  fpace  of 
twenty-four  hours,  each  of  thefe  worms  had  become  from 
155  to  210  times  heavier  than  formerly.  This  rapidity 
of  growth  is  remarkable  in  thofe  maggots  which  are  pro- 
duced from  the  eggs  of  the  common  flem-fly. 

Before  we  difmifs  this  fubjecl,  a  few  observations  on 
that  power,  inherent  in  all  animal  bodies,  of  difTolving, 
and  converting  into  chyle,  every  nutritive  fubftance. 
thrown  into  the  ftomach,  merit  attention. 

In  order  to  explain  the  procefs  of  digeftion,  fome  phy- 
ficians  and  philosophers  have  had  recourfe  to  mechanical, 
force,  and  others  to  chemical  adtion.  The  fupporters 
of  mechanical  force  maintained,  that  the  ftomachs  of  all 
animals  comminuted,  or  broke  down  into  fmall  portions, 
every  fpecies  of  food,  and  prepared  it  for  being  converted 
into  chyle.  The  chemical  philofophers,  on  the  contrary, 
fupported  the  opinion,  that  the  food  was  difTblved  by  a 
fermentation  induced  by  the  faliva  and  gaftric  juices. 
The  difputes  which  naturally  arofe  from  thefe  feemingly 
oppofite  theories,  flhmilated  the  inquiries  of  the  ingeni- 
ous, and  produced  feveral  curious  and  important  difcove- 
tie's.  Reaumur,  M'Bride,  Stevens,  Spallanzani,  Hunter, 
have  all  exerted  their  indultry  and  talents  upon  this  fub- 

jedh 


206  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

left.  To  give  even  an  abridged  view  of  their  different 
labours  would  be  tedious,  and,  at  the  fame  time,  would 
not  coincide  with  the  defign  of  this  work.  I  (hall,  there- 
fore, confine  myfelf  to  fome  refults  of  their  experience 
and  labours.  Spallanzani,  who  is  a  voluminous 
on  t^is  fubject,  relates  not  only  the  difcoveri:s 
predeceffors,  but  has  enriched  his  work  with 
experiments  and  obfervations  made  by  himidf.  in  his 
inveftigation  of  the  procefs  of  digeition,  and  the  acdon 
of  the  (lomach,  he  obferves  the  following  order : 

i.  He  treats  of  animals  with  flrong  mufcular  ftomachs, 
as  common  fowls,  turkeys,  ducks,  geefe,  pigeons,  ac. 
Q..  Of  animals  with  ftomachs  of  an  intermediate  confiit- 
ence,  as  crows,  herons,  &c.  3.  Of  animals  with  mem- 
branous ftomachs,  as  frogs,  lizards,  earth  and  water 
fnakes,  vipers,  fifties,  meep,  the  ox,  the  horfe,  the  owl, 
the  falcon,  the  eagle,  the  cat,  the  dog,  man,  &c. 

With  regard  to  birds  which  are  furnifhed  with  mufcular 
ftomachs,  or  gizzards,  Spallanzani,  in  imitation  of  Reau- 
mur, procured  fmall  glafs  and  metal  balls  and  tubes, 
perforated  with  many  holes.  Thefe  he  filled  with  diffe- 
rent kinds  of  food,  and  forced  them  down  the  throats  of 
common  fowls,  turkeys,  &c.  He  filled  balls  with  barley, 
or  other  grains,  in  their  entire  (late,  and  allowed  them 
to  remain  in  the  fiomachs  of  ducks,  turkeys,  and  other 
fowls,  for  twenty-four,  and,  in  fome  cafes,  for  forty-eight 
hours.  He  then  killed  the  animals,  took  the  balls  out  of 
their  ftomachs,  and,  after  examining  the  grains  atten- 
tively, he  could  not  difcover  that  the  gaftric  juice,  to  the 
adion  of  which  they  were  fully  expofed  by  the  numerous 
holes  in  the  balls,  had  made  the  fmalleft  impreflion  upon 
them.  They  fuffered  no  diminution  of  fize,  and  exhi- 
bited no  marks  of  difiblution.  Thefe  experiments  he 
often  repeated  upon  a  number  of  fowls  provided  with 
mufcular  ftomachs,  and  the  event  was  uniformly  the  fame: 
In  no  inftance  did  the  gaftric  juice  produce  any  folvent 
effecl  upon  the  grain  contained  in  the  balls.  After  thefc 
unfuccefsful  attempts,  he  fufpected,  that,  though  the 
gaftric  juice  was  unable  to  diifolve  grains  in  their  entire 
ifcate,  it  might  aft  as  a  menftruum  upon  them  when  iui- 

ficicntly 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  207 

ficiently  mafticated  or  bruifed.  To  afcertain  this  point, 
he  afterwards  filled  his  balls  with  bruifed  grains,  and  intro- 
duced them  into  the  flomachs  of  different  fowls,  as  cocks, 
ducks,  turkeys,  wood-pigeons,  &c.  In  all  the  numerous 
trials  he  made  with  bruifed  grain,  he  invariably  found, 
that  the  grain  was  more  or  lefs  diffolved  in  proportion  to 
the  time  the  balls  were  allowed  to  remain  in  the  ftomach., 
Reaumur  and  Spallanzani,  in  the  courfe  of  their  expe- 
riments upon  the  digeftion  of  birds  with  mufcular  flo- 
machs, dif  covered  a  wonderful  comminuting  force  which 
thefe  flomachs  poffefs.  When  tin  tubes  full  of  grain  were 
thrown  into  the  flomachs  of  turkeys,  and  allowed  to  con- 
tinue there  a  confiderable  time,  they  were  found  to  be 
broken,  crufhed,  or  diftorted,  in  a  mod  fingular  manner. 

*  Having  found,'  fays  Spallanzani,  '  that  the  tin   tubes 

*  which  I  ufed  for  common  fowls  were  incapable  of  re- 
fifling  the  ftomach   of  turkeys,  and  not  happening  at 
that  time  to  be  provided  with  any  tin  plate  of  greater 
thicknefs,  I  tried  to  ftrengthen  them,  by  foldering   to 
the  ends  two  circular  plates  of  the   fame   metal,  perfo- 
rated only  with  a  few  holes  for  the   admiffion  of  the 
gaftric  fluid.     But  this  contrivance  was  ineffectual ;  for 
after  the  tubes  had  been  twenty  hours  in  the  ftomach  of 
a  turkey,  the  circular  plates  were  driven  in,  and  fome 
of  the  tubes  were  broken,  forne  compreffed,  and  fome 

c  diftorted,  in  the  moft  irregular  manner  V 

The  fmooth  and  blunt  fubftances  formerly  employed, 
Spallanzani  remarks,  though  fo  violently  acted  upon, 
could  not  injure  the  ftomach  ;  he  therefore  tried  what 
effecls  would  be  produced  by  fharp  bodies  thrown  into 
the  gizzards  of  fowls.  He  found  that  the  ftomach  of  a 
cock,  in  the  fpace  of  twenty-four  hours,  broke  off  the 
angles  of  a  piece  of  rough  jagged  glafs.  Upon  examining 
the  gizzard,  no  wound  or  laceration  appeared.  '  Twelve 
6  ftrong  tin  needles/  fays  Spailanzani,  '  were  firmly  fixed 
4  in  a  ball  of  lead,  the  points  projecting  about  a  quarter 

*  of  an  inch  from  the  furface.     Thus  armed,  it  was  co- 
c  vered  with  a  cafe  of  paper,  and  forced  down  the  throat 
'.  of  a  turkey.     The  bird  retained  it  for  a  day  and  a  half 

4  without 

*  Spallanzani's  Diflertations,  vcl.  1.  p,  12.  *  S. 


THE     PHILOSOPHY 

4  without  fhowing  the  lead  fymptom  of  uneafmefs.  Why 
'  the  ftomach  fhoujd  have  received  no  injury  from  fo 
6  horrid  an  inftrument  I  cannot  explain  :  The  points  of 

*  the  twelve  needles  were  broken  off  clofe  to  the  furface 

*  of  the  ball,  except  two  or  three,  of  which  the  flumps 
6  projected  a  little  higher. — Two   of  the   points   of  the 
c  needles  were  found  among  the  food  ;  the  other  ten  I 
c  could  not  difcover,  either  in  the  ftomach  or  the  long 

*  track  of  the  inteftines ;  and  therefore  concluded,   that 

*  they  had  pafled  out  at  the  vent  j-.' 

The  fame  author  made  a  fecond  experiment  feemingly 
Hill  more  cruel.  He  fixed  twelve  fmall  lancets,  very 
iharp  both  at  the  points  and  edges,  in  a  fimilar  ball  of 
lead.  '  The  lancets/  fays  he,  6  were  fuch  as  I  ufe  for 

*  the  difleclion  of  fmall  animals.     The  ball  was  given  to 
'  a  turkey  cock,  and  left  eight  hours  in  the  ftomach  ;  at 
4  the  expiration  of  which  time  that  organ  was  opened ; 

*  but  nothing  appeared  except  the  naked  ball,  the  twelve 
c  lancets  having  been  broken  to  pieces.    I  difcovered  three 
6  of  them  in  the  large  inteftines,  pointlefs,  and   mixed 
c  with  the  excrements ;  the  other  nine  were  miffing,  and 
6  had  probably  been  voided  at  the  vent.     The  ftomach 

*  was  as  found  and  entire  as  that  which  had  received  the 

*  needles.     Two  capons,  of  which  one  was  fubjedted  to 

*  the  experiment  with  the  needles,  and  the  other  with  the 
c  lancets,  fuftained  them  equally  well.' 

The  fmall  (tones  fo  commonly  found  in  the  ftomachs 
of  many  of  the  feathered  tribes,  have  been  fuppoied  to 
fheath  the  gizzard,  and  to  enable  it  to  digeft,  or  at  leaft 
to  break  down  into  fmall  fragments,  glafs,  iron,  wood, 
ftones,  and  other  hard,  and  even  (harp-pointed,  fubftan- 
ces.  Spallanzani  has  endeavoured  to  prove,  that  the  muf- 
cular  action  of  the  gizzard  is  equally  powerful,  whether 
the  fmall  ftones  are  prefent  or  abfent.  To  afcertain  this 
point,  he  took  wood-pigeons  the  moment  they  efcaped 
from  the  egg,  fed  and  nurfed  them  himfelf  till  they  were 
able  to  peck :  '  They. were  then,'  continues  our  author, 

*  confined  in  a  cage,  and  fupplied  at  firft  with  vetches 
'  foaked  in  warm  water,  and  afterwards  in  a  dry  and  hard 

*  ftate. 

I  Spallanzani's  DifTeitations,  vol.  1.  p,  18.     S. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  209 

*  flate.  In  a  month  after  they  had  begun  to  peck,  hard 
4  bodies,  fuch  as  tin  tubes,  glafs  globules,  and  fragments 
4  of  broken  glafs,  were  introduced  with  the  food.  Care 
4  was  taken  that  each  pigeon  fhould  fwallow  only  one  of 
4  thefe  fubftances.  In  two  days  afterwards  they  were 
4  killed.  Not  one  of  the  ftomachs  contained  a  fingle 
4  pebble ;  and  yet  the  tubes  were  bruifed  and  flattened, 
4  and  the  fpherules  and  bits  of  glafs  blunted  and  broken : 
4  This  happened  alike  to  each  body ;  nor  did  the  fmalleft 
4  laceration  appear  on  the  coats  of  the  ftomach/  From 
feveral  experiments  of  a  fimilar  nature,  and  accompanied 
with  the  fame  events,  Spallanzani  concludes  this  fubject 
with  that  candour  which  is  always  a  genuine  character- 
iftic  of  a  real  philofophic  fpirit.  Upon  the  whole,  4  it 
4  appears/  fays  he,  4  that  thefe  fmall  ftones  are  not  at  all 
4  neceflary  to  the  trituration  of  the  firmeft  food,  or  the 
4  hardeft  foreign  fubftance,  contrary  to  the  opinion  of 
4  many  anatomifts  and  phyfiologifts,  as  well  ancient  as 
4  modern.  I  will  not,  however,  deny  that,  when  put  in 
4  motion  by  the  gaftric  mufcles,  they  are  capable  of  pro- 
4  ducing  fome  effect  on  the  contents  of  the  ftomach.' 

The  celebrated  Mr.  John  Hunter,  in  his  Obfervaiiom 
on  Digejiion  *,  fairly  quotes  the  modeft  conclusion  of  Spal- 
lanzani. But,  he  infifts  that  ftones  are  extremely  ufeful 
in  the  comminution  of  grain,  and  other  fubftances,  which 
conftitute  the  food  of  many  fowls.  4  In  confidering/ 
Mr.  Hunter  remarks,  4  the  ftrength  of  the  gizzard,  and 
4  its  probable  effects  when  compared  with  the  human  fto- 
4  mach,  it  muft  appear  that  the  gizzard  is,  in  itfelf,  very 
4  fit  for  trituration.  We  are  not,  however,  to  conclude, 
4  that  ftones  are  entirely  ufelefs ;  for,  if  we  compare  the 
c  ftrength  of  the  mufcles  of  the  jaws  of  animals  who 
4  mafticate  their  food,  with  thofe  of  birds  who  do  not, 
c  we  lhall  fay,  that  the  parts  are  well  calculated  for  the 
4  purpofe  of  maftication ;  yet  we  are  not  from  thence  to 
4  infer,  that  the  teeth  in  fuch  jaws  are  ufelefs,  even  al- 
4  though  we  have  proof  that  the  gums  do  the  bufinefs 
c  when  the  teeth  are  gone.  If  ftones  are  of  ufe,  which 
*  we  may  reasonably  conclude  they  are,  birds  have  an 

D  d  4  advantage 

*  Page  1.56. 


2io  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

'  advantage  over  animals  having  teeth,  fo  far  as  (tones  aie 

*  always  to  be  found,  while  the  teeth  are  not  renewed. — 
6  If  we  conftantly  find  in  an  organ  fubftances  which  can 

*  only  be  fubfervient  to  the  functions  of  that  organ,  fhould 
4  we  deny  them  that  ufe,  although  the  part  can  do  its 
'  office  without  them  ?• — The  (tones  affift  in  grinding  down 
'  the  grain,  and,  by  feparating  its  parts,  allow  the  gaftric 
'  juice  to  come  more  readily  in  contact  with  it.' 

The  next  feries  of  experiments  were  made  upon  ani- 
mals with  what  Spallanzarii  denominates  intermediate 
(tomachs  between  the  rnufcular  and  membranous,  as  ra- 
vens, crows,  herons,  &c.  The  power  and  action  of  thefe 
intermediate  (tomachs  are  fuperior  to  thofe  of  the  membra- 
nous kind,  but  greatly  inferior  to  thofe  of  the  mufcular* 
The  tin  tubes,  or  balls,  which  pigeons  and  turkeys  foon 
ilatten  and  disfigure,  remain  unaltered  in  the  ftomach  of 
crows.  Their  gaftric  mufcles,  however,  are  by  no  means 
inert.  Though  they  are  unable  to  comprefs  or  diitort 
tin  tubes,  they  are  capable  of  producing  this  effect  upon 
thin  tubes  of  lead.  Birds  whofe  (tomachs  are  of  an  in- 
termediate kind,  with  regard  to  the  thicknefs  and  (trength 
of  their  mufcular  coats,  may  be  denominated  omnivorous. 
They  eat  grafs,  herbs,  grain,  and  flelh  of  every  kind. 
When  we  make  experiments  upon  the  digeftive  powers 
of  gallinaceous  birds,  the  animals  muft  be  killed  before 
we  can  learn  what  effects  have  been  produced  on  the  fub- 
(tances  inclofed  in  the  balls  or  tubes.  But,  on  crows  and 
ravens,  experiments  of  this  kind  may  be  repeated  as  of- 
ten as  we  pleafe,  without  deftfbying  a  fingle  individual. 
Subftances  which  they  are  incapable  of  digefting,  as  me- 
tallic tubes,  they  have  the  -power  of  difgorging,  or  re- 
turning by  the  mouth,  in  the  fame  manner  as  falcons, 
and  other  birds  of  prey,  throw  up  the  feathers  and  hair 
of  the  unimals  they  have  devoured.  In  birds  of  prey, 
this  vomiting  is  commonly  performed  every  twenty-four 
hours;  but,  in  crows,  it  happens  at  leaft  every  nine,  'and 
not  unfrequently  every  two  or  three  hours. 

Spallanzani,  as  in  the  former  experiments,  thruft  down 
perforated  tubes,  filled  with  different  lubftances,  into  the 
itomachs  of  crows.  Thefe  tubes  were  uniformly  thrown 

up 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         211 

op  by  the  animals  in  a  few  hours.  When  the  tubes  were 
filled  with  entire  grains,  as  wheat  or  beans,  he  found  that 
the  gaftric  juice,  though  the  tubes,  by  being  repeatedly 
forced  down,  continued  in  the  ftomach  for  the  fpace  of 
forty-eight  hours,  had  exerted  no  folvent  power.  As  the 
hulks  of  the  feeds  refilled  the  action  of  the  gaftric  juice, 
he  bruited  them,  and  repeated  the  experiment.  c  Four 
c  tubes  full  of  this  coarfe  flour,'  fays  he,  c  were  given  to 
4  a  crow:  They  remained  eight  hours  in  the  ftomach, 
c  and  proved  the  juftnefs  of  my  fufpicion  ;  for,  upon  exa- 
c  mining  the  contents,  1  found  above  a  fourth  part  want- 
c  ing.  This  could  arife  from  no  other  caufe  but  folution 
c  in  the  gaftric  liquor,  with  which  the  remainder  was  fully 
6  impregnated.  Another  obfervation  concurred  in  prov- 
c  ing  the  fame  propofition  :  The  larger!  bits  of  wheat  and 
£  bean  were  evidently  much  dimiihed,  This  mud  have  been 
6  owing  to  the  gaftric  liquor  having  corroded- and  JirTolvecl 
6  good  part  of  them,  as  the  nitrous  acid,  diluted  with  a 
c  large  quantity  of  water,  gradually  confumes  calcareous 
c  fubftances.  I  replaced  what  remained  of  the  feeds  in  the 
c  tubes,  and  committed  them  again  to  the  ftomach,  where- 
c  in  they  remained,  at  different  intervals,  twenty-one 
c  hours  ;  at  the  end  of  which  period  they  were  entirely 
c  diflblved  ;  nothing  being  left  but  fome  pieces  of  hulk, 
c  and  a  few  inconsiderable  fragments  of  the  feeds.  Wheat: 
£  and  beans  floating  loofe  in  the  cavity  of  the  ftomach, 
c  undergo  the  fame  alteration  as  in  the  tubes.  When  1 
c  fed  my  crows  with  thefe  feeds,  I  obferved,  that,  before 
*  they  fwallowed  them,  they  let  them  under  their  feet,  and 
:<-  reduced  them  to  pieces  by  repeated  ilrokes  of  their  long 
c  and  heavy  beaks  :  And  now  they  digefted  them  very 
4  well;  nay,  this  procefs  was  very  rapid  in  comparifon  of 
c  that  which  took  place  within  the  tubes.  But,  when  the 
'  birds,  either  from  exceffive  hunger,  or  violence,  fwallow- 
c  ed  the  feeds  entire,  the  greateft  part  of  them  palled  out 
c  entire  at  the  anus,  or  were  vomited.  We  cannot,  there- 
c  fore,  be  furprifed,  that  the  gaftric  juice  could  not  diflfolve 
c  them  within  the  tubes,  fmce  it  was  incapable  of  effecl- 
6  ing  this  procefs  within  the  cavity  of  the  ftomach,  where 
c  its  folvent  power  is  far  fupcrior.' 

Similar 


212  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

Similar  experiments  were  made  with  French  beans, 
peafe,  nut-kernels,  bread,  apples,  and  different  kinds  of 
flefh  and  fifh,  all  of  which  were  diffolved,  both  in  tubes, 
and  in  the  cavity  of  the  flomach,  by  the  gaftric  juice. 

Spallanzani  fmifhes  his  experiments  on  digeflion  with 
thofe  animals  which  have  thin  membranous  ftomachs. 
This  clafs  comprehends  an  immenfe  number  of  fpecies,  as 
man,  quadrupeds,  fifhes,  reptiles.  In  thefe,  the  coats  of 
the  ftomach  feem  to  have  little  or  no  action  upon  their 
contents,  the  gaftric  juice  being  fully  fufficient  to  break 
down  the  food,  and  reduce  it  to  a  pulp. 

With  regard  to- man,  Dr.  Stevens,  in  an  Inaugural  Dif- 
fertation  concerning  Digeftion,  published  at  Edinburgh 
in  the  year  1777,  made  feveral  experiments  upon  a  Ger- 
man, who  gained  a  miferable  livelihood  by  fwallowing 
ftones  for  the  amufement  of  the  people.  He  began  this 
ftrange  pra&ice  at  the  age  of  feven,  and  had  at  that  time 
continued  it  about  twenty  years.  He  fv/al lowed  fix  or 
eight  ftones  at  a  time,  fome  of  them  as  large  as  a  pigeon's 
egg,  and  paffed  them  in  the  natural  way.  Dr.  Stevens 
thought  this  poor  man  would  be  an  excellent  fubjecl  for 
ascertaining  the  folvent  power  of  the  gaftric  juice  in  the 
human  ftomach.  The  Doftor,  accordingly,  made  ufe  of 
him  for  this  purpofe.  He  made  the  German  fwallow  a 
hollow  filver  fphere,  divided  into  two  cavities  by  a  parti- 
tion, and  perforated  with  a  great  number  of  holes,  capa- 
ble of  admitting  an  ordinary  needle.  Into  one  of  thefe 
cavities  he  put  four  fcruples  and  a  half  of  raw  beef,  and  into 
the  other  five  fcruples  of  raw  bleak.  In  twenty-one  hours 
the  fphere  was  voided,  when  the  beef  had  loft  a  fcruple  and 
a  half,  and  the  rifli  two  fcruples.  A  few  days  afterwards, 
the  German  fwal lowed  the  fame  fphere,  which  contained, 
in  one  cavity,  four  fcruples  and  four  grains  of  raw,  and, 
in  the  other,  four  fcruples  and  eight  grains  of  boiled  beef. 
The  fphere  was  returned  in  forty-three  hours :  The  raw 
fielh  had  loft  one  fcruple  and  two  grains,  and  the  boiled 
one  fcruple  and  fixteen  grains.  Sufpecling  that,  if  thefe 
fubftances  were  divided,  the  folvent  would  have  a  freer 
accefs  to  them,  and  more  of  them  would  be  diffolved, 
Dr.  Stevens  procured  another  fphere,  with  holes  large 

enough 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         213 

enough  to  receive  a  crow's  quill.  *  He  inclofed  fome  beef 
in  it  a  little  mafticated.  In  thirty-eight  hours  after  it  was 
fwallowed,  it  was  voided  quite  empty.  Perceiving  how 
readily  the  chewed  meat  was  diflblved,  he  tried  whether 
it  would  diflblve  equally  foon  without  being  chewed. 
With  this  view,  he  put  a  fcruple  and  eight  grains  of  pork 
into  one  cavity,  and  the  fame  quantity  of  cheefe  into  the 
other.  The  fphere  was  retained  in  the  German's  itomach 
and  inteftines  forty-three  hours  ;  at  the  end  of  which  time, 
not  the  fmalleil  quantity  of  either  pork  or  cheefe  was  to 
be  found  in  the  fphere.  He  next  fwallowed  the  fame 
fphere,  which  contained,  in  one  partition,  fome  roafted 
turkey,  and  fome  boiled  fait  herring  in  the  other.  The 
fphere  was  voided  in  forty-fix  hours  ;  but  no  part  of  the 
turkey  or  herring  appeared  ;  for  both  had  been  complete- 
ly diflolved.  Having  difcovered  that  animal  fubftances, 
though  inclofed  in  tubes,  were  eafily  difTolved  by  the  gaf- 
tric  juice,  the  Doctor  tried  whether  it  would  produce  the 
fame  effect  upon  vegetables.  He,  therefore,  inclofed  an 
equal  quantity  of  raw  parfnip  and  potato  in  a  fphere. 
After  continuing  forty-eight  hours  in  the  alimentary  canal, 
not  a  veftige  of  either  remained.  Pieces  of  apple  and 
turnip,  both  raw  and  boiled,  were  diflblved  in  thirty-fix 
hours. 

It  is  a  comfortable  circumilance,  that  no  animal,  per- 
haps, except  thofe  worms  which  are  hatched  in  the  human 
inteftines,  can  refift  the  diflblving  power  of  the  gaftric 
jiiice.  Dr.  Stevens  inclofed  live  leeches,  and  earth-worms, 
in  different  fpheres,  and  made  the  German,  fwaliow  them. 
When  the  fpheres  were  difcharged,  the  animals  were  not 
only  deprived  of  life,  but  completely  diifolved,  by  the 
operation  of  this  powerful  menftruum.  Hence,  if  any 
live  reptile  fliould  chance  to  be  fwallowed,  we  have  no 
reafon  to  apprehend  any  danger  from  fuch  an  accident. 

The  German  left  Edinburgh  before  the  Doclor  had  an 
opportunity  of  making  a  farther  progrefs  in  his  experi- 
ments. He  therefore  had  recourfe  to  dogs  and  ruminat- 
ing animals.  In  the  courfe  of  his  trials  upon  the  folvent 
power  in  the  gaftric  fluid  of  dogs,  he  found  that  it  was 
capable  of  diflblving  hard  bones,  and  even  balls  of  ivory  ; 

but 


2i4  THE" -PHILOSOPHY 

but  that,  in  equal  times,  very  little  impreffion  was  made 
upon  potatoes,  paiinip,  and  other  vegetable  fubftances. 
On  the  contrary,  in  the  ruminating  animals,  as  the  flieep, 
the  ox,  &c.  he  difcovered,  that  their  gaftric  juice  fpeedily 
diffolved  vegetables,  but  made  no  impreffion  on  beef, 
mutton,  and  other  animal  bodies.  From  thefe  laft  expe- 
riments, it  appears,  that  the  different  tribes  of  animals 
are  not  lefs  dillinguiihed  by  their  external  figure,  and  by 
their  manners,  than  by  the  quality  and  powers  of  their 
gaftric  juices.  Dogs  are  unable  to  digeft  vegetables,  and 
flieep  and  oxen  cannot  digeft  animal  fubftances.  As  the 
gaftric  juice  of  the  human  ftomach  is  capable  of  diffolv- 
ing,  nearly  with  equal  eafe,  both  animals  and  vegetables, 
this  circumftance  affords  a  ftrong,  and  almoft  an  irreiifti- 
ble,  proof,  that  Nature  originally  intended  man  to  feed 
promifcuoully  upon  both. 

Live  animals,  as  long  as  the  vital  principle  remains  in 
them,  are  not  affected  by  the  folvent  powers  of  the  fto- 
mach. (  Hence  it  is,'  Mr.  Hunter  remarks,  c  that  we 
*"  find  animals  of  various  kinds  living  in  the  ftomach,  or 
c  even  hatched  and  bred  there ;  but  the  moment  that  any 
c  of  thefe  lofe  the  living  principle,  they  become  fubjecl  to 

*  the  digeftive  powers  of  the  ftomach.    If  it  were  poflible, 

*  for  example,  for  a  man's  hand  to  be  introduced  into 
c  the  ftomach  of  a  living  animal,  and  kept  there  for  forne 
6  confiderable  time,  it  would  be  found,  that  the  diffolvent 

*  powers  of  the  ftomach  could  have  no  effecl  upon  it :  But, 

*  if  the  fame   hand  were  feparated  from   the  body,  and 

*  introduced  into  the  fame  ftomach,  we  Ihould  then  find, 

*  that  the  ftomach   would   immediately  a£t  upon  it.     Tn- 

*  deed,  if  this  were   not  the   cafe,  we  fliould  find    that 

*  the  ftomach  itfeif  ought  to  have  been  made  of  indigefti- 

*  ble  materials  ;  for,  if  the  living  principle  was  not  capa- 
c  ble    of  preferring  animal  fubftances  from  undergoing 
c  that  proceis,  the  ftomach  itfeif  would  be  digefted.     But 
'  we  find,  on  the  contrary,  that  the  ftomach,  which  at 

*  one  inftant,  that  is,  while  poffeiied  of  the  living  prin- 

*  ciple,  was  capable  of  refilling  the  digeftive  powers  which 
c  it  contained,  the  next  moment,  viz.  when  deprived  of 
c  the  living  principle,  is  itfeif  capable  of  being  digefted, 

c  either 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  215 

'  either  by  the  digeftive  powers  of  other  ftomachs,  or  by 
c  the  remains  of  that  power  which  it  had  of  digefting 
6  other  things.* 

When  bodies  are  opened  fome  time  after  death,  a  con- 
fiderable -aperture  is  frequently  found  at  the  greateil  ex- 
tremity of  the  ftomach.  *  In  thefe  cafes/  fays  Mr.  Hun- 
ter, *  the  contents  of  the  ftomach  are  generally  found 
'  loofe  in  the  cavity  of  the  abdomen,  about  the  fpleerr 
'  and  diaphragm.  In  many  fubjects,  this  digeftive  power 
6  extends  much  farther  than  through  the  ftomach.  I  have 
c  often  found,  that,  after  it  had  diffolved  the  ftomach  at 
*  the  ufual  place,  the  contents  of  the  ftomach  had  come 
c  into  contact  with  the  fpleen  and  diaphragm,  had  partly 
'  diffolved  the  adjacent  fide  of  the  fpleen,  and  had  dif- 
4  folved  the  ftomach  quite  through ;  fo  that  the  contents 
'  of  the  ftomach  were  found  in  the  cavity  of  the  thorax, 
c  and  had  even  affected  the  lungs  in  a  fmall  degree/ 


CHAPTER    IX. 

Of  the  Sexes  of  Animals  and  Vegetables. 

SECTION    I. 

Of  the  Sexes  of  Animals. 

ALL  the  larger  and  more  perfect  animals  are  diftin- 
guifhed  by  the  fexes  of  male  and  female.  The  bodies 
of  males,  though  not  without  exceptions,  are,  in  general, 
ftronger,  larger,  and  more  active,  than  thofe  of  the  fe- 
males. In  the  human  fpecies,  the  male  is  not  only  larger 
than  the  female,  but  his  mufcular  fibres  are  firmer  and 
more  compact,  and  his  whole  frame  indicates  a  fuperior 
ftrength  and  robuftnefs  of  texture.  He  does  not  acquire 

his 


216  THE    PHILOS  OPH  Y 

his  full  growth,  and  bed  form,  till  he  arrives  at  the  age 
of  thirty  years.  But,  in  women,  the  parts  are  rounder, 
and  their  mufcular  fibres  more  feeble  and  lax  than  thofe 
of  men,  and  their  growth  and  form  are  perfect  at  the  age 
of  twenty.  A  fimilar  obfervation  is  applicable  to  the 
minds  of  the  two  fexes.  Man  is,  comparatively,  a  bold, 
generous,  and  enterprifmg  animal.  Women,  on  the  con- 
trary, are  timid,  jealous,  and  difpofed  to  actions  which 
require  lefs  agility  and  ftrength.  Hence,  they  are  entitled 
to  claim,  and,  by  their  amiable  weaknefles,  they  actually 
receive,  our  protection.  Men  are  endowed  with  majefty 
of  figure  and  force  of  mind  ;  but  beauty,  and  the  graces, 
are  the  proper  characteristics  of  women.  The  laxity  and 
foftnefs  of  their  texture  may,  in  fome  meafure,  account 
for  the  timidity  and  liftleilnefs  of  their  difpofition ;  for, 
when  the  bodies  of  men  are  relaxed  by  heat,  or  by  any 
other  caufe,  their  minds  become  not  only  timid,  but  weak, 
undetermined,  and  inactive. 

The  focial  intercourfe  of  women  foften?  the  difpofitions, 
and  foothes  the  cares  and  labours  of  the  men.  Their 
little  female  humours,  caprices,  and  follies,  give  rife  to 
many  exertions  of  virtue.  They  excite  in  us  companion, 
humanity,  and  tendernefs  of  affeftion.  The  delicacy  of 
their  bodies,  and  the  weaknefs  of  their  minds,  require 
our  fupport  and  protection.  In  return,  the  gentle  and 
infinuating  manners  of  the  women  have  a  direct  tendency 
to  foften  and  fmooth  the  natural  roughnefs  of  men.  In 
mod  governments,  women  have  the  entire  management 
and  training  of  children,  till  their  characters  and  difpo- 
fitions are  almoft  fixed  for  life.  This  is  an  important 
office ;  and  would  require  more  education  and  fenfe 
than  they  commonly  receive-  either  from  nature  or  art. 
But,  their  perievering  and  unremitting  attention  to  their 
charge,  efpecially  when  children  are  fick  or  weakly,  is  fo 
truly  ailoniihing,  that  no  man  could  have  patience  to 
perform  the  laborious  and  painful  talk.  Women  are  like- 
wife  faid  to  fuffer  bodily  pain  with  more  refoiution  than 
men.  Women  reafon  rapidly  j  but  their  reafoning,  though 
often  acute,  is  feldom  folid. 

Modefty  is  one  of  the  moil  diftinguifhing  and  attractive 

charao 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         21? 

characteriftics  of  the  female  fex.  This  is  the  great  defence 
with  which  Nature  has  armed  them  againft  the  artifices 
and  deceit  of  the  males.  Modefty  has  a  double  effect : 
It  both  attracts  and  repels.  It  heightens  the  defire  of  the 
male,  and  deters  him  from  rudenefs,  or  improper  beha- 
viour. Were  women  deprived  of  this  amiable  quality, 
all  their  charms  would  vanifh,  and  the  ardour  of  love 
would  be  extinguifhed.  It  is,  therefore,  not  only  the 
intereft  of  females  to  cultivate  modefty,  but  to  gi;?v«.i, 
with  the  mod  anxious  attention,  againft  the  fmalleft  en- 
croachments. Every  attack,  however  apparently  infigni- 
ficant,  fhould  be  repelled  with  fpirit  and  intrepidity.  To 
men  of  fenfibility,  a  (ingle  glance  of  the  eye  will  tell  them 
their  conduct  is  improper,  and  make  them  not  onhy  i-n- 
ftantly  defift,  but  prevent  any  future  attempt.  There  is 
no  part  of  the  female  character  which  men  revere  fo  much 
as  modefty.  It  is  the  brighteft  and  mod  valuable  jewel 
with  which  a  woman  can  be  adorned.  A  fine  woman 
without  modefty,  inftead  of  gaining  the  affections  of  men, 
becomes  an  object  of  contempt,  and  even  of  difguft.  It 
is  equally  the  intereft  of  men  to  cherim,  and  not  to  injure 
by  indelicacy,  a  quality  from  which  they  derive  fo  much 
pleafure  and  advantage. 

It  is  not  unworthy  of  remark,  that  modefty  is  by  no 
means  confined  to  the  human  fpecies.  Evident  traces  of 
it  are  difcoverable  in  the  brute  creation.  Even  fo  low  as 
the  infect  tribes,  mod  females  repel  the  firft  attacks  of  the 
males.  If  this  is  not  modefty,  it  has  all  the  effects  of  it ; 
for  it  heightens  the  refpect  and  affection  of  the  males, 
and  makes  them  employ  every  alluring  art  to  procure  the 
regard  of  the  female. 

It  is  a  curious  fact,  that  moft  carnivorous  quadrupeds 
are  more  averfe  from  devouring  women  than  men.  The 
bears  of  Kamtfchatka  follow  the  women,  when  gathering 
wild  fruits  in  the  woods,  and,  though  moft  rapacious 
animals,  do  them  no  farther  harm  than  robbing  them  of 
part  of  the  fruit  .  The  afpect  of  man  being  more  bold, 
may.  perhaps,  create  an  idea  of  competition  and  danger, 
and  excite  the  ferocity  and  courage  of  the  animal.  There 

E  e  fcems 

*  Gazette  Ltt<yaire,  vol.  i.  p.  482.     S. 


218  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

feems  to  be  an  inilinclive  refpect,  if  not  dread,  of  the 
human  kind  implanted  in  moft  animals.  If  this  be  the 
cafe,  the  above  fad:  amounts  to  a  high  compliment  to  the 
women  ;  for  they  receive  more  favour  from  the  brute  cre- 
ation than  men. 

With  regard  to  animals,  in  general,  the  intercourfe  of 
fexes  is  neceflary  for  the  multiplication  of  the  fpecies. 
But,  as  formerly  remarked  *,  feveral  of  the  lower  tribes 
are,  enabled  to  multiply  without  the  intervention  of  the 
fexes.  In  fome  animals,  both  fexes  are  combined  in  each 
individual.  The  earth-worm,  fnails,  and  feveral  fhell- 
fiihes,  are  hermaphrodites ;  and  yet  the  conjunction  of 
two  is  neceffary  for  their  multiplication.  Mr.  Adanfon, 
in  his  Account  of  Senegal,  mentions  fome  (hell-animals 
which,  in  order  to  produce,  require  the  union  of  three 
individuals.  In  the  polypus,  no  appearance  of  fexual 
diilinclion  has  hitherto  been  difcovered.  Nature,  how- 
ever, has  not  denied  them  the  power  of  multiplication, 
which  is  effe&ed  in  a  very  fmgular  manner  f .  Caterpillars 
of  every  denomination  are  totally  deftitute  of  fexes,  and 
are  incapable,  while  they  remain  in  that  flate,  of  multi- 
plying their  fpecies.  But,  after  their  transformation  into 
flies,  the  diftinclion  of  fexes  is  apparent,  and  their  fertility 
is  exceedingly  great. 

Among  the  larger  animals,  the  difference  of  fize  and 
figure  between  males  and  females  is  not  remarkable.  The 
moil  ftriking  diftinftions  arife  from  the  horns,  the  tufks, 
the  creil,  &c.  which  adorn  the  head  of  the  male,  and 
are  often  wanting  in  the  female.  But,  among  the  infect 
tribes,  fome -males  differ  fo  greatly  from  the  females,  that 
they  have  the  appearance  of  belonging  to  a  feparate  ge- 
nus. In  fome  butterflies,  for  example,  the  female  is  de- 
ftitute of  wings,  while  thofe  of  themrale  are  very  large. 
The  male  and  female  of  thofe  animals  called  gall-infers 
bear  no  proportion  to  each  other,  either  in  fize  or  in 
figure.  They  adhere  for  feveral  months  to  the  items  and 
branches  of  plants,  Ihrubs,  and  trees,  without  any  ap- 
parent? movement.  They  have  every  appearance  of  galls, 
being  of  a  fphericai  or  oval  figure,  from  which  circum- 

ftancc 

See  chap.  i.  pa^.  24.  £c.     S.  t  Ibid.     S. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         219 

{lance  they  have  received  their  denomination,  and  were 
long  confidered  as  vegetable  fubftances,  deflitute  of  every 
degree  of  animation.  Reaumur,  however,  by  a  (met  ex- 
amination of  the  changes  they  undergo,  and  of  their  in- 
ternal flructure,  difcovered  that  they  belong  to  the  animal 
kingdom.  He  found  that  they  contained  thoufands  of 
fmall  eggs,  and  that,  from  thefe  eggs,  fmall  animals  were 
produced,  which  ran  about  with  ibme  quicknefs,  and 
fpread  themfelves  all  over  the  tree,  or  bufli.  After  fome 
days  they  attach  themfelves  to  the  ftem  and  branches, 
remain  immoveable,  and  gradually  increafe  to  their  full 
dimenfions,  when  their  bodies  are  found  to  contain  num- 
bers of  eggs.  As  the  perfect  animal  had  no  apparent 
motion,  and  yet  multiplied  its  fpecies,  it  was  rirft  thought 
to  be  an  hermaphrodite  of  a  linguiar  kind,  and  that  it 
was  capable  of  producing  without  any  foreign  aid.  But 
Reaumur  difcovered  that  they  were  impregnated  by  fmall 
flies,  and  that  thefe  fmall  flies  were  male  gall-infects.  The 
head,  the  body,  the  breaft,  and  the  fix  limbs  of  this 
fly,  are  of  a  deep  red  coloyr  ;  and  the  wings,  which  are 
proportionally  large,  are  white,  bordered  with  a  band  of 
fine  carmine  red.  In  the  month  of  April,  he  perceived 
numbers  of  thefe  flies  wandering  about  on  the  gall-infects. 
He  obferved  that  they  pierced  the  covering  of  the  gall- 
infecls  with  a  kind  of  fling  fhaped  like  a  needle.  This 
circumflance  created  a  fufpicion  that  thefe  flies  wrere  the 
males,  and  that  this  was  their  mode  of  impregnating  the 
eggs  of  the  female.  To  afcertain  this  point,  he  opened 
a  number  of  gall-infects  which  had  no  uncommon  ap- 
pearance, and,  in  fome  of  them,  he  found  the  males, 
in  every  flage  of  their  exifrence,  till  they  pierced  the  ex- 
ternal covering,  came  out  in  the  form  of  perfect  flies, 
and  attached  themfelves,  as  ufual,  to  the  females.  The 
glow-worm,  an  animal  condemned  to  crawl  perpetually 
on  the  furface  of  the  earth,  is  a  female  ;  and  the  male, 
inftead  of  a  reptile,  is  a  fcarabssus,  or  beetle,  furnifhed 
with  four  wings.  A  fpecies  of  phofphorus,  emitted  from 
the  body  of  the  female,  excites  the  attention  of  this  ap- 
parently-ftrange  male,  who  darts  down  upon  her,  and 

actually 


220  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

actually  enables  her  to  continue  the  kind  *.  The  female 
of  another  fpecies  of  beetle  is  a  perfect  reptile,  and  has 
not  the  fmalieft  veflige  of  wings.  But,  the  male  is  a  real 
beetle  with  four  wings,  and  is  fo  difproportioned  to  the 
female  in  fize,  that  their  junction  mould  appear  to  be 
equally  fmgular  as  that  of  a  ram  with  an  elephant.  With 
regard  to  the  pucerons,  or  vine-fretters,  the  males  are 
winged  ;  but  the  females  remain  duiing  life  totally  defti- 
tute  of  wings.  In  fome  fpecies  of  them,  however,  the 
females  have  wings,  and  thefe  inftruments  of  motion  are 
denied  to  the  males.  Between  the  fize  of  the  male  and 
female  pucerons,  there  is  likewife  a  remarkable  difpro- 
portion.  The  males,  particularly  thofe  which  have  no 
wings,  are  fo  comparatively  fmall,  that  they  run  about, 
like  the  male  gall-infects,  upon  the  backs  of  the  females. 
While  this  exercife  continues,  which  is  often  very  long, 
the  female  remains  almoft  motionlefs.  The  more  infen- 
fibility  and  liftleflhefs  fhown  by  the  female,  the  male  ex- 
hibits the  greater  ardour  and  agility.  In  this  fituation  he 
pafifes  whole  days  without  taking  any  nourilhment. 

In  birds  of  prey,  the  females  are  larger,  ftronger,  fier- 
cer, and  more  beautiful  than  the  males.  This  fuperiority 
of  ftrength  and  magnitude  is  conferred  on  the  females, 
becaufe,  in  general,  they  are  obliged  to  procure  food  both 
.lor  themfeives  and  for  their  progeny.  Vultures,  how- 
ever, are  to  be  excepted  ;  for  the  males  are  equal  in  fize, 
if  they  do  not  exceed  that  of  the  females.  In  the  galli- 
naceous tribe  of  birds,  on  the  contrary,  the  males  are 
larger,  more  beautiful,  and  more  courageous,  than  the 
females.  The  peacock,  the  turkey,  the  pheafant,  and 
the  dunghill  cock,  are  remarkable  examples.  Dunghill 
cocks,  efpecially  that  kind  of  them  which  are  called 
gamc-cccks,  are  the  moft  intrepidly  bold  and  high-fpirited 
animals  in  the  creation.  Nothing  but  abfolute  death  can 
make  them  yield  to  an  antagonist.  In  the  domeftic  Itate, 
at  leaft,  this  intrepidity,  and  this  daring  ipirit,  refult  from 
competition,  and  jealoufy  of  rivals.  Game-cocks,  to  the 
difgrace  of  humanity,  are  fed  and  trained  with  the  moft 

fcrupulous 

*  Reaumur.     Oeuvrcs  de  Bonnet,  torn.  2.  p.  87.  edit.  Svo.     S. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         221 

Icrupulous  attention.  For  what  purpofe  ?  For  the  cruel 
amufement  and  fortuitous  emolument  of  gamblers. 

That  there  are  natural  hermaphrodites,  1  have  formerly 
mentioned.  But,  in  man,  dogs,  cats,  unnatural  herma- 
phrodites, if  they  ever  exiil,  are  fo  rare,  that  the  celebrat- 
ed anatomift,  Mr.  Hunter,  declares  he  never  faw  a  fmgle 
example.  But,  in  the  horfe,  the  afs,  black-cattle,  and 
fheep,  he  has  feen  many  hermaphrodites.  It  is  laid  to  be 
a  known  fact,  that,  when  a  cow  brings  forth  two  calves, 
one  of  them  a  male,  and  the  other  a  female,  the  female  is 
incapable  of  propagation,  but  that  the  male  is  a  perfect 
animal.  In  England,  a  cow-calf  brought  forth  with  a 
bull-calf  is  denominated  a  free  martin^  and  is  as  well 
known  among  farmers  as  either  cow  or  bull.  Mr.  Hun- 
ter remarks,  that  a  cow-calf,  brought  forth  in  the  fituation 
above  mentioned,  may  be  either  a  free  martin  or  a  perfect 
female.  '  For,'  he  remarks,  c  I  have  reafon  to  believe, 
*  that,  in  black  cattle,  fuch  a  deviation  may  be  produced 
6  without  the  circumftance  of  twins  ;  and,  even  when 
'  there  are  twins,  the  one  a  male,  the  other  a  female, 
'  they  may  both  have  the  organs  of  generation  perfectly 
6  formed  *.'  What  is  called  a  free  martin,  or  imperfect 
hermaphrodite,  as  far  as  obfervation  has  hitherto  extend- 
ed, is  confined  to  black-cattle.  The  free  martin  has  all  the 
external  chara&eriftics  of  a  female  calf.  When  animals 
of  this  defcription  are  preferred  by  farmers,  it  is  not  for 
the  purpofe  of  propagation,  but  for  yoking  with  the  oxen, 
or  fattening  for  the  table.  They  neither  breed,  nor,  what 
is  curious,  do  they  difcover  the  {mailed  inclination  for  the 
male,  nor  does  the  bull  pay  the  leaft  attention  to  them. 

The  free  martin,  in  figure,  refembles  the  ox,  or  ipayed 
heifer.  It  is  confiderably  larger  than  the  bull  or  cow,  and 
its  horns  are  fimilar  to  thofc  of  the  ox.  '  The  belly  of 
c  the  free  martin,'  fays  Mr.  Hunter,  c  is  fimilar  to  that  of 
<  an  ox,  having  more  refemblance  to  that  of  the  cow  than 
c  of  the  bull.  Free  martins  are  very  fufceptible  of  grow- 
6  ing  fat  with  food.  The  flefh,  like  that  of  the  ox,  or 
e  fpayed  heifer,  is  in  common  much  finer  in  the  fibre  than 
f  either  the  bull  or  cow,  and  is  fuppofed  to  exceed  that  of 

«  the 

*  Hunter's  Obfervations  on  the  Animal  (Economy,  p.  49.     S. 


222  T  H  E    P  H  I  L  O  S  O  P  H  Y 

c  the  ox  or  heifer  in  delicacy  of  flavour,  and  bears  a  high- 
c  er  price  at  market  V  The  Romans  feem  to  have  had 
fome  knowledge  of  free  martins,  though  they  have  not 
tranfmitted  to  us  any  peculiarities  in  the  flruclure  of  theie 
animals.  With  them,  taurus  was  the  generic  name  of  the 
ox  kind.  They  likewife  mention  tauray  by  which,  it  is 
thought, .they  meant  barren  cows.  Columeila,  when  talk- 
ing of  cattle,  fays,  c  and,  like  the  taura,  which  occupy 
'  the  place  oi  fertile  cows,  fhould  be  rejected  f.'  Varro 
likewife  informs  us,  that  6  the  cow  which  is  barren  is 

*  called  taura.' 

Mr.  Hunter  gives  an  anatomical  description,  of  three 
free  martins,  the  moil  perfecl  of  which  we  fhail  tranferibe. 

*  Mr.  Afbutbnofs  Free  Martin  §. 

c  The  external  parts  were  rather  finaller  than  in  the 
c  cow.  The  vagina  pafled  on,  as  in  the  cow,  to  the  open- 
c  ing  of  the  urethra,  and  then  it  began  to  contracl  into 

*  a  fmall   canal,  which  pafled  on  to   the  clivifion  of  the 
c  ute'rus    into    two   horns ;  each   horn   pafled  along   the 
c  edge  of  the  broad  ligament  laterally  towards  the  ovaria. 

*  At  the  termination  of  thefe  horns  were  placed  both  the 
6  ovaria  and  the  tefdcles ;  both  were  nearly  of  the  fame 

*  fize,  which  was  about  as  large  as  a  fmall  nutmeg.     To 
c  the  ovaria  I  could  not  find  any; Fallopian  tube.     To  the 
c  tefticles  were  vafa  deferentia ;  but  they  were  imperfecl. 
c  The  left  one  did  not  come  near  the  teilicle ;  the  right 
c  one  came  clofe  to  it,  but  did  not  terminate  in  a  body 
c  called  the  epididymis.     They  were  both  pervious,  and 
c  opened  into  the  vagina  near  the  opening  of  the  urethra, 
c  On  the  pofterior  furface  of  the  bladder,  or  between  the 
c  uterUvS  and  bladder,  were  the  two  bags  called  ygfaiila 
*"  feminales  in  the  male,  but  much  fmaller  than  what  they 
'  are  in  the  bull  :  The  duels  opened  along  with  the  vafa 
c  deferentia  |j.' 

SECTION 

*  Hunter's  Obfervaticns  on  the  Animal  (Economy,  p.  50.  S.  t  Columeila, 
lib.  6.  cap.  22.  S. 

^  *  This  animal  was  foven  years  old,  had  been  often  yoked  with  tb«  oxen,  at 
'  other  times  went  with  the  cows  and  bull,  but  never  fhowed  any  defires  for  either 

*  the  one  or  the  other.' 

|j  Hunter's  Obfervations  on  the  Animal  CEconomy,  p.  52.     S. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY,         223 

SECTION       II. 

Of  the  Sexes  of  Plants. 


WHEN  an  hypothecs,  or  theory,  has  obtained  a 
general  reception  among  even  the  enlightened  part 
of  mankind,  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  eradicate  the  pre- 
judice, either  by  arguments  or  by  fads.  There  is  not  a 
notion  more  generally  adopted,  than  that  vegetables  have 
the  diftinclion  of  fexes,  and  that  the  influence  of  what  is 
called  the  male  is  indifpenfibly  neceffary  to  the  fecunda- 
tion of  the  female,  or  feed-bearing  plant :  A  notion  which 
I  have  long  coniidered  as  a  finking  example  of  the  dan- 
ger of  raflily  yielding  aflent  to  the  alluring  feduclions  of 
analogical  reasoning*, 

Every  perfon  who  is  acquainted  with  the  fexual  theory 
of  vegetables,  and  with  the  arguments  by  which  it  is  de- 
fended, mufh  acknowledge,  that  its  principal  fupport  is 
derived  from  the  many  beautiful  analogies  which  fublifi 
between  plants  and  animals.  Becaufe  all  animals  were 
fuppofed  to  propagate  by  fexual  embraces,  and  becaufe 
plants  refembled  animals  in  their  growth,  their  nourifh- 
ment,  their  diflemination,  and  decay,  it  was  therefore 
concluded,  that  all  vegetables  were  either  male,  female, 
or  hermaphrodite  ;  and  that  fexual  commerce  was  equally 

neceflary 

*  The  fubftance  of  the  following  facls,  and  reafoning,  was  delivered,  above 
twenty  years  a^o,  in  the  Botanic  Garden  at  Edinburgh,  in  prefence  of  the  late 
worthy  and  learned  Dr.  Hope,  and  his  ftudents.  Dr.  Hope,  in  order  to  excite 
induftiy  and  attention  in  his  pupils,  appointed  annually  four  of  then  number  to 
give  a  Icfture,  or  difcourlc,  upon  fome  botanical  fubjeft,  \vhich  he  prelcribed  to 
them.  To  me  the  Profeiloi  afligned  the  Sexes  of  Plants,  with  the  libeity  of  op- 
pofing  the  doftrine  of  Linnaeus,  and  his  o\vn.  Being  at  that  time  a  very  young; 
man,  and  a  ft  rift  believer  in  the  fexual  fyftem  of  plants,  I  willingly  uadcrtOok 
the  tufk,  becaufe  1  thought  I  had  the  chance  of  fhowing  fome  little  inucu.uty  in 
attempting  to  {hake  a  theory  which  1  then  imagined  to  be  eftablilbed  upon  the 
tirmeft  bafis  of  fail  and  expen-neiu.  Jlu:,  after  perilling  Li nnaeus's  works,  and 
many  othar  books  on  the  fubjecL  1  was  alloniflied  to  iiud,  that  this  thcorv  was 
fupported  neither  by  facts  nor  arguments,  which  could  produce  eo&vi'&idn  cvc8 
in  the  moft  prejudiced  minds.  This  difcourfc  was  afterwards  publifhed  in  the  Sr^ 
ediiioa  of  the  Encyclopedia  Britandca.  S. 


224  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

neceflary  for  the  fecundation  of  the  vegetable  as  of  the 
animal  tribes. 

This  analogy  was  plaufible,  and  feemed  to  beftow  a 
fplendid  uniformity  on  the  conduct  of  Nature.  But  ex- 
periment, the  only  teft  of  natural  truths,  has  totally  an- 
nihilated this  beautiful  fabrick.  The  numberlefs  fp'ecies 
of  vine-fretters,  of  polypi,  of  millepedes,  and  of  infufion- 
animalcuies,  multiply,  without  having  recourfe  to  the 
common  laws  of  generation.  Here,  then,  the  analogy 
flops ;  and,  indead  of  bringing  aid  to  the  fexualid,  ope- 
rates powerfully  againfl  his  favourite  hypothecs.  If  many 
fpecies  of  animals  are  deditute  of  all  the  endearments  of 
love,  what  fiiould  induce  us  to  fancy  that  the  oak  or  the 
mumroom  enjoy  thefe  didinguifhed  privileges  ? 

The  analogy,  befides,  is  frequently  contradicted  in  the 
ordinary  ceconomy  of  vegetables.  It  is  univerfally  al- 
lowed, for  example,  that,  even  in  oviparous  animals, 
the  eggs  can  only  be  impregnated  while  they  are  in  a 
gelatinous  or  mere  embryo  ftate.  When  farther  advanc- 
ed, their  membranes,  or  fhells,  acquire  a  confidence 
fuificient  to  refifl  the  male  influence.  But,  among  the 
vegetable  tribes,  every  circumdance  is  reverfed.  In  mod 
hermaphrodite  plants,  (I  mud  fpeak  in  the  language  of 
the  fydem),  the  feeds  are  not  only  not  in  a  gelatinous  date, 
but  have  acquired  confiderable  bulk  and  folidity,  long 
before  the  pollen,  or  fuppofed  fecundating  dud,  is  thrown 
out  of  its  capfules. 

The  fame  remark  is  applicable  to  dioicous  plants,  or 
fuch  as  are  barren  and  feed-bearing  in  different  individu- 
als. What  conclufion  is  here  to  be  drawn?  Analogy 
fails ;  and  facts  contradict  the  analogy.  The  pollen  of 
mod  plants  fheds  after  the  feeds  of  their  refpe&ive  fpecies 
are  far  advanced  in  iize  and  confidence.  If  this  pollen 
had  the  power  of  fecundating,  it  could  feldom  impregnate 
plants  of  its  own  fpecies  ;  becaufe,  when  it  is  difcharged, 
the  feeds  are  pad  the  proper  feaibn ;  but,  by  flying  pro- 
mifcuoufly  abroad,  this  pollen  might  impregnate  different 
fpecies  which  happened  then  to  be  in  a  fit  condition  for 
the  reception  of  male  Influence.  Confider  the  confequen- 
ces  of  fuch  an  arrangement.  Is  not  this  to  make  Nature 

O 

gperate . 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         225 

operate  againft  her  own  intentions  ?  Nature  intends  that 
plants  fliould  multiply  and  perpetuate  their  kinds  ;  but 
the  fexual  hypothecs  makes  her  take  the  moil  effe&ual 
meafures  to  prevent  that  intention,  and  to  introduce  uni- 
verfal  anarchy  among  the  vegetable  tribes.  Were  this 
theory  true,  the  whole  vegetable  kingdom,  in  a  few  years, 
would  be  utterly  confounded :  Inftead  of  a  regular  fuc- 
ceilion  of  marked  fpecies,  the  earth  would  be  covered 
with  monftrous  productions,  which  no  botanifl  could 
either  recognife  or  unravel. 

The  propagation  of  plants  by  fuckers,  flips,  and  cut- 
tings, is  a  curious  fact  in  the  hiilory  oi  vegetation*  The 
ftrawberry  is  commonly  raifed  by  flips  taken  from  the 
old  root,  or  by  fuckers  fent  off  from  the  plant.  In  either 
of  thefe  methods,  the  plants  flourifh,  and  produce  fruit- 
Many  bulbous  and  eye-rooted  plants,  and  moft  fhrubs  and 
trees,  may  be  propagated  in  the  fame  manner.  Where, 
it  may  be  a(ked,  do  thefe  plants  procure  impregnation  ? 
That  they  grow,  and  produce  fertile  fruit,,  is  undeniable  ; 
and  yet,  according  to  the  fexual  hypothecs,  the  pollen  of 
the  male  is  indifpenfibly  neceffary  to  the  ripening  and 
fertilization  of  the  fruit.  By  means  of  fuckers,  flips, 
cuttings,  and  layers,  the  whole  globe  might  be  fpread 
over  with  vegetables,  without  the  poffibility  of  a  fingle 
impregnation. 

Though  the  argument  from  analogy  fliould  be  in- 
conclufive,  yet,  fay  the  fexualifts,  we  appeal  to  facts- 
I  lhall,  therefore,  give  a  fhort  view  of  the  principal 
facts  employed  to  fupport  the  fexuai  intercourie  of 
plants. 

After  what  has  been  remarked,  it  will  not  be  expecled 
that  I  fhould  mention  thofe  parts  of  Linnseus's  reaibning 
which  are  derived  from  analogy.  In  many  inftances,  he 
has  puihed  analogy  fo  far  beyond  all  decent  limits,  that 
it  becomes  truly  ridiculous.  For  example,  he  gravely 
tells  us,  c  That  the  calix  reprefents  the  marriage  bed ;  the 
c  corolla  the  curtains ;  the  filaments  the  fpermatic  veffe!s  ; 
'  the  antheras  the  tejies  ;  the  fallen  the  male  femcn ';  the: 
6  fligma  the  extremity  of  the  female  organ  ;  the  ftylus  the 

F  f  c  vagina  / 


226  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

'  vagina ;  the  germen  the  ovarium  ;  the  pericarpium  the 
c  impregnated  ovarium ;  and  the  feeds  the  eggs  V 

The  mod  plaufible  fact  in  favour  of  the  fexual  hypo- 
theiis  is  derived  from  the  culture  of  the  date-bearing  palm- 
tree.  Haffelquiil  f,  and  fome  other  travellers,  mention 
their  having  feen  flowering  branches  of  male  trees  fixed 
to  the  females  by  Arabian  gardeners,  who  alledged,  that, 
unlefs  this  operation  were  performed,  their  dates  would 
•neither  be  good  nor  plentiful.  This  practice  can  boaft  of 
an  antiquity  long  prior  to  the  notion  of  fexes  in  plants. 
How  it  came  to  be  introduced,  it  is  of  little  importance 
to  inquire.  We  know  that  the  cuftom  is  ftill  faid  to  pre- 
vail :  But  we  likewife  know,  that  there  is  not  an  authen- 
tic fact  which  (hows  any  connection  between  the  practice 
and  the  event,  though  that  be  an  eflential  ingredient  in 
the  controverfy.  The  eaftern  nations  are  famous  for  in- 
troducing fuperflition  into  every  part  of  their  ceconomy ; 
and  it  is  equally  difficult  to  account  for  their  manners  as 
for  their  culture  of  palm-trees. 

Mylius's  letter  to  Dr.  Watfon,  recorded  in  the  Philo- 
fophical  Tranfactions,  is  an  attempt  to  remove  this  diffi- 
culty, and  to  (how  a  neceffary  connection  between  the 
male  and  female  palm.  Mylius  writes  to  his  correfpond- 
ent,  c  That  a  female  palm-tree  grew  many  years  in  the 
4  garden  belonging  to  the  Royal  Academy  at  Berlin, 
c  without  producing  any  ripe  or  fertile  fruit ;  that  a  male 

*  branch,  with  its  flowers  in  full  blow,  was  brought  from 
c  Leipfic,  about  twenty  German  miles  from  Berlin,  and  fuf- 

*  pended  over  the  female  tree.     The  refult  was,  that  the 
6  female  yielded,  the  firft  year,  100  ripe  dates.    The  fame 
c  experiment  being  repeated  the  following  year,   2000 
6  ripe  fruit  were  produced.' 

Not  to  call  Mylius's  veracity  in  queflion,  the  experi- 
ment is  both  mconclufive  and  defective.  Berlin  is  not 
the  climate  of.  palm-trees.  The  tree,  he  informs  us,  bore 
flowers  and  fruit  for  thirty  years  before  the  trial  was 
made ;  but  the  fruit,  it  is  faid,  never  came  to  maturity. 
Plants  feidom  produce  rip^fruit  in  a  climate  not  adapted 

to 

*  Sponfalia  Plantarum,  in  Amcen.  Acad.  vol.  1.  p.  103.     S. 
t  Hafielquift's  Travels,  p.  u?..  416.     Kempfer,  Anictm.  p.  706.    Tournefort 
Ifag.  p.  6q.     S. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         227 

to  their  nature,  until  they  have  grown  there  a  long  time. 
Mylius's  palm-tree  had  carried  unripe  fruit  for  thirty 
years.  According  to  the  ufual  courfe  of  exotic  plants, 
therefore,  it  is  natural  to  think,  that,  like  the  American 
aloe,  the  tree,  during  all  this  time,  was  making  gradual 
advances  toward  perfection ;  that,  when  the  male  branch 
happened  to  be  fufpended  over  the  female,  the  plant  had 
arrived  at  the  higheft  degree  of  maturity  it  could  ever 
acquire  in  the  climate  of  Berlin  j  and,  of  courfe,  that 
the  accidental  circumftance  of  fufpending  the  male  branch 
over  it,  at  this  critical  period,  might  give  rife  to  the  de- 
ception of  attributing  the  ripening  of  the  fruit  to  the 
prefence  of  the  male  branch.  The  production  of  100 
ripe  fruit  only  the  firft  year,  and  2000  the  fecond,  is  a 
ftrong  corroboration  of  this  account  of  the  matter.  At 
any  rate,  the  experiment  is  exceedingly  defective  and  un- 
fatisfa&ory.  To  convince  any  man  that  the  fertility  of 
this  tree  was  folely  owing  to  fome  impregnating  virtue 
communicated  to  it  by  the  male,  a  branch  mould  have 
been  fufpended  over  the  female  one  year,  omitted  the  next, 
and  fo  on  alternately  for  a  fucceflion  of  feafons,  or,  as 
the  fexualifts  would  exprefs  it,  giving  her  a  hufband  one 
year,  and  denying  her  that  gratification  the  next.  After 
treating  the  female  in  this  manner,  if  it  had  uniformly 
happened,  that  the  fruit  ripened  every  year  the  male 
branch  was  fufpended,  and  that  none  came  to  maturity 
when  that  operation  was  omitted,  then  there  would  have 
been  fome  foundation  for  fuppofmg  a  connection  between 
the  ripening  of  the  fruit  and  the  prefence  of  the  male 
branch.  But,  as  this  neceflary  precaution  was  omitted, 
the  experiment  is  incomplete,  and  the  conciufion  drawn 
from  it  precipitate  and  unphilofophic. 

In  accounting  for  the  fecundity  of  all  the  dioicous*  and 
monoecious  j-  plants,  the  fexualifts  have  recourfe  to  the  aid 
of  the  winds,  and  of  infects.  They  betake  themfelves  to 
this  ftrange  refuge,  in  order  to  -explain  the  manner  in 
which  female  plants,  when  fituated  at  a  diftance  from 

males, 

*  Plants  which  have  the  male  charatler  in  one  individual,  and  the  female  in 
another.  S. 

t  Plants  which  have  both  the  male  and  female  characters  in  the  fame  indivi- 
dual, S. 


228  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

males,  are  impregnated.  Some  of  them,  as  Kalm,  and 
others,  are  perfectly  fatisfied  with  this  fuppofed  serial 
commerce  of  vegetables,  even  when  the  males  are  ten, 
fifteen,  or  twenty  miles  diftant  from  the  females !  Here, 
it  may  be  remarked,  that  the  multiplication  of  fpecies  is 
one  of  the  moil  important  laws  of  Nature.  All  the  laws 
of  Nature  are  fixed,  (leady,  and  uniform,  in  their  opera- 
tion :  None  of  their  effects  are  abandoned  to  thofe  uncer- 
tarnties  which  neceffarily  refult  from  chance,  or  from  any 
fortuitous  train  of  circumftances.  But,  is  there  any  thing, 
in  northern  climates  at  leaft,  more  defultory  and  caprici- 
ous than  the  direction  and  motion  of  the  winds  ?  Can  we 
form  a  conception  of  any  thing  more  cafual  and  uncer- 
tain than  the  wayward  paths  of  infects  ?  The  very  fuppo- 
fition,  therefore,  that  Nature  has  expofed  the  fertility  of 
a  tenth  part  of  the  whole  vegetable  kingdom,  and  many 
of  them,  too,  plants  of  the  utmoft  importance  to  man,  and 
other  animals,  to  fuch  accidental  caufes,  is  repugnant  to 
every  idea  of  found  philofophy.  Befides,  the  reverfe  has 
been  proved  by  Dr.  Alfton,  Camerarius,  and  Tournefort. 
Thefe  gentlemen  reared  female  plants  of  the  fpinage  and 
hemp  in  fuch  fituations,  and  with  fuch  fcrupulous  precau- 
tions, to  prevent  any  fuppofed  impregnation  by  means  of 
the  wind,  or  of  infects,  that  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  the 
poilibility  of  any  communication  between  the  males  and 
females.  Thefe  females,  however,  produced  fertile  feeds 
in  the  greateft  abundance. 

Since  thefe  experiments  were  made,  it  has  been  difco- 
vered,  that  male  flowers  are  fometimes  found  lurking  on 
the  female  plants  of  the  fpinage  and  hemp  :  And  this  dif- 
covcry  the  fexualifts  think  Sufficient  to  account  for  the 
fuceefs  of  Dr.  Alfton's  experiments.  But,  inftead  of 
folving  the  difficulty,  this  circumftance  feems  to  involve 
it  in  ilill  deeper  obfcurity  :  For,  that  the  pollen  ifluing 
from  the  antherse  of  a  male  flower  or  two  mould  rife,  fall, 
and  turn  round  in  every  direction,  fo  as  to  light  precifely 
on  the  ftigmata  of  all  the  fnperior,  inferior,  and  circum- 
jacent female  flowers,  appears  to  exceed  the  common 
powers  of  human  faith.  Befides,  this  circumftance  would 
feera  to  indicate,  that  there  is  no  fteadinefs  in  what  is 

called 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         229 

called  vegetable  fews.  We  are  even  told,  that  trees,  which 
had  continued  many  years  under  the  character  of  females, 
but,  from  fome  ftrange  metamorphofis,  had  fuddenly  drop- 
ped '.heir  female  forms,  and  alTumed  the  more  robufl  fea- 
tures peculiar  to  the  male  part  of  the  creation  ! 

It  was  hinted  above,  that  all  the  dioicous,  monoecious, 
as  well  as  moft  of  the  hermaphrodite  flowers,  being  im- 
pregnated by  means  of  the  wind,  feemed  not  to  accord 
•with  the  rules  of  philofophizing  ;  we  fhali  now  examine 
that  doclrine  more  clofely. 

The  pollen  is  allowed  to  be  too  large  to  get  adrrr' 
into  the  itigmata,  though  laid  upon  them  with  the  great- 
eft  dexterity.  This  difficulty  the  fexuaiifts  imagine  to  be 
removed,  when  they  tell  us,  that  moifture  makes  the  pol- 
len fplit,  and  difcharge  a  fubtile  aura,  and  that  this  aura 
impregnates  the  feeds.  But,  though  the  pollen  fhould 
explode  by  the  application  of  moifture,  and  difcharge  a 
fubtile  aura,  this  explofion  could  never  effect  the  purpofes 
of  impregnation  :  For,  when  the  pollen  was  lying  on  the 
ftigma,  the  aura  muft  neceifarily  blow  off,  inftead  of  be- 
ing abforbed  by  that  part  of  the  plant.  Is  not  the  fuppo- 
iition  fmgular,  and  even  contradictory,  that  a  plant  fhould 
be  impregnated  by  a  Jubilance  forcibly  blown  away  from 
the  female  ? 

This  reafoning  proceeds  upon  the  admiflion,  that  the 
pollen  is  laid  with  dexterity  upon  the  ftigma.  But  it  will 
receive  additional  force,  when  I  defy  all  the  naturalifts  in 
the  univerfe  to  produce  an  inftance  of  a  fingle  grain  of 
pollen  being  ever  feen  on  any  part  of  a  female  plant,  even 
when  at  no  great  diftance  from  a  male,  far  lefs  upon  the 
ftigmata  of  each  feparate  flower.  Granting,  however, 
the  pollen  to  be  carried  off  from  the  male  by  the  wind, 
yet,  as  the  fuppoied  fecundating  aura  it  contains  is  much 
lighter  than  air,  and  is  difcharged  by  the  flighted  moif- 
ture, it  can  never  fall  down  upon  the  diftant  females,  but 
muft  rife  and  diffipate  in  the  higher  regions  of  the  atrnof- 
phere.  It  may  alfo  be  difcharged  by  the  application  of 
rain,  or  dews,  before  the  pollen  is  carried  off  by  the  wind 
from  the  male  flowers  :  And,  if  the  winds  blow  in  a  di- 
rection contrary  to  the  Situation  of  the  female  plants  for 

a  few 


230  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

a  few  critical  hours,  the  females  muft  be  rendered  barren, 
at  leaft  for  a  feafon. 

It  is  an  eftablifhed  fact,  that  coleworts,  turnips,  &c. 
when  growing  in  gardens,  fometimes  produce  new  vari- 
eties. Thefe  varieties  the  fexualifls  uniformly  hold  up  as 
inftances  of  hybrids,  or  mongrels,  from  fortuitous  com- 
mixtures of  different  males  and  females.  This  conclufion, 
however,  feems  to  be  precipitate.  It  is  well  known  to 
nurferymen  and  gardeners,  that,  from  feeds  of  the  fame 
individual  plants,  varieties  fometimes  appear.  If  thefe 
varieties  chance  to  have  any  qualities  fuperior  in  value 
to  the  original  plants,  their  feeds,  moots,  or  flips,  are 
collected,  and  the  new  kind  is  propagated  with  diligence. 
That  the  beauty  of  flowers,  and  the  magnitude  and  fla- 
vour of  fruits  are  improveable  by  particular  modes  of 
culture,  and  even  by  unknown  accidents,  is  an  undeniable 
truth  :  That  thefe  improved  qualities,  in  whatever  manner 
procured,  continue  in  the  kind,  unlefs  allowed  to  dege- 
nerate by  negligence,  is  not  lefs  true.  But  there  is  no- 
thing fo  wonderful  in  thefe  phenomena  as  to  require  the 
moil  unbounded  ftretches  of  fancy  to  account  for  them. 
Are  not  the  beauty,  flrength,  and  magnitude  of  animals, 
equally  improveable  by  culture  ?  Does  not  an  ox,  tranf- 
ported  from  the  comparatively  barren  mountains  of  Scot- 
land, to  the  rich  paflures  of  Yorkfhire,  affume  qualities 
very  different  from  thofe  he  originally  poffeffed  ?  Why, 
then,  ihould  an  inconfiderable  change  in  the  conftitution 
of  a  colewort,  or  a  turnip,  excite  furprife  ?  Plants  are 
liable  to  be  diverfified  by  numberlefs  accidents.  Perpe- 
tually fixed  to  the  fame  local  fituation,  they  mufl  receive, 
indifcriminately,  fuch  nouriilimeiit  as  is  tranfmitted  to 
them  by  the  earth  and  air.  When  different  kinds  happen 
to  grow  very  near  each  other,  and,  as  they  have  not  the 
choice  of  rejecting  fuch  food  as  is  prefented  to  them,  may 
not  exudations  from  the  one  be  abforbed  by  the  roots  of 
the  other  ?  May  not  the  matter  which  tranfpires  fo  copi- 
oufly  from  the  leaves  and  flowers  of  one  plant  be  conveyed 
to,  and  abforbed  by,  thofe  of  a  different  kind?  And  may 
not  this  foreign  nourifhment  occafionally  introduce  fome 
Changes  in  the  colour,  texture,  or  flavour,  of  the  leaves, 

flowers, 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          231 

flowers,  or  fruit  ?  Nay,  is  it  not  reasonable  to  fuppofe, 
that  folutions  of  various  mineral  fubftances,  the  action 
of  particular  manures,  and  a  thoufand  other  circumftan- 
ces,  may  often  induce  fuch  changes  ?  Why,  then,  fhould 
we  have  recourfe  to  unnatural  and  {trained  analogies, 
when  the  phenomena  may  be  folved  upon  the  principles 
of  found  philofophy  ? 

The  learned  Dr.  Hope,  late  Profeflbr  of  Botany  in  the 
Univerfity  of  Edinburgh,  who  was  a  ftrenuous  fupporter 
of  vegetable  fexes,  thought  he  had  almoft  eftablifhed  the 
theory  by  the  following  experiment  upon  the  lychnis  di- 
oica,  of  which  two  varieties  are  natives  of  Scotland,  the 
one  bearing  white,  and  the  other  red,  flowers.  The 
Doctor,  about  twelve  years  ago,  raifed  a  white  female 
and  a  red  male  under  the  fame  glafs-bell,  which  was  funk 
fo  far  in  the  foil  as  to  prevent  all  communication  with 
other  vegetables.  The  bell  terminated  in  a  tube,  which, 
for  the  occafional  introduction  of  a  little  frefh  air,  was 
fluffed  with  mofs.  The  feeds  of  the  white  female  were 
fown  next  feafon  ;  and,  inflead  of  white,  the  plants  pro- 
duced red  flowers,  in  confequence,  it  was  imagined,  of 
the  influence  of  the  male  upon  the  female.  He  likewife 
aflerted,  that  the  red  kind,  when  left  to  Nature,  never 
brought  forth  white  flowers,  nor  the  white  kind  red 
flowers. 

Upon  this  experiment  we  have  to  remark,  i.  That 
nothing  is  more  dangerous,  or  more  fallacious  in  philo- 
fophy, than  the  aflumption  of  general  pofitions  without 
an  accurate  inveftigation.  The  Do&or  advanced,  for  ex- 
ample, that  the  red  and  white  lychnis,  when  in  a  natural 
ftate,  never  change  their  colours.  This  pofition  is  neither 
capable  of  admiilion  nor  denial ;  becaufe  no  experiment, 
nor  inquiry,  feems  ever  to  have  been  made  on  the  fubject : 
Yet  it  is  aflumed  as  a  premife  to  the  conclufion,  that  the 
change  of  the  white  into  a  red  lychnis  was  occafioned  by 
the  influence  of  the  red  male  upon  the  white  female. 

2.  That  hybrids,  or  mules,  uniformly  participate  of 
both  the  fpecies  or  varieties  by  which  they  are  engendered. 
A  jack-afs  and  mare  never  produce  a  fimple  afs  or  horfe, 
but  a  mule,  or  mixture  of  the  two.    It  fhould  feem,  how- 
ever, 


THE     PHILOSOPHY 

ever,  that  this  red  lychnis  trarisfufed  its  own  individual 
qualities,  without  allowing  a  fmgle  particle  of  the  female 
to  appear.  This  is  contrary  to  every  analogy.  If  the 
change  had  originated  from  fexual  commixture,  the  pro- 
geny ought  not  to  have  been  completely  red,  but  pied, 
or  a  mixture  of  red  and  white.  To  whatever  caufe,  there- 
fore, this  change  may  be  attributed,  it  can  never  be  af- 
cribe-d  to  any  thing  analogous  to  generation. 

3.  That  colour  is  a  delicate  and  fluctuating  quality.  It 
depends  fo  much  on  light,  air,  health,  and  perhaps  fome 
unknown  caufes,  that  botanifts,  with  great  propriety,  have 
rejected  it  as  a  fpecific  character.  Sufpecting  that  caufes 
of  this  nature  might  change  the  colour  of  the  white 
lychnis  under  confederation,  I  examined  the  condition 
of  fome  plants  then  fubjected  to  the  fame  trials  in  our 
Botanic  Garden.  The  flowers  both  of  the  red  and  white 
lychnis  were  then  in  full  blow  under  the  bell,  the  glafs 
of  which  was  thick,  and  of  a  darker  green  than  our  com- 
mon beer-bottles.  The  light,  of  courfe,  tranfmitted  to 
the  plants  was  lurid  and  obfcure.  They  were  alfo  deprived 
of  a  free  circulation  of  air.  Under  thefe  unnatural  cir- 
cumftances,  the  plants  had  a  fickly  afpecl.  The  flowers 
of  the  red  variety,  iriftead  of  a  vivid  red,  were  almoft  per- 
fectly white.  Here  we  have  nearly  an  equal  change  made 
upon  the  fame  plant,  without  the  poffibility  of  its  being 
affected  by  the  intercourfe  of  fexes.  If  plants  are  thus 
deprived  of  proper  light  and  air,  it  cannot  be  furprifing 
to  fee  changes  produced  in  the  colour  of  their  immediate 
defcendents.  The  contaminated  air  efcaping  from  the 
plants  themfelves,  and  from  the  foil  under  the  bell,  may  be 
iufficient  to  produce  this  effect.  I  formerly  mentioned, 
that  the  colour,  and  other  qualities  of  plants  growing  near 
each  other,  may  be  changed  by  abforbing  the  matter  of 
tranfpiration  and  exudation.  The  argument  is  applicable 
with  peculiar  force  to  plants  imprifoned  fo  clofely,  and 
having  fo  little  accefs  to  frefh  air.  In  this  fituation,  they 
mult,  of  neceflity,  feed  upon  each  other.  Confine  a  man 
and  a  woman  for  years  in  a  fmall  ill-aired  cell,  and  ob- 
ierve  their  afpect,  and  that  of  their  progeny.  Their  ap- 
pearance will  be  very  different  from  that  of  children  pro- 
duced 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          1233 

duced  by  healthy  parents,  and  enjoying  the  benefits  of 
the  fun's  rays,  and  of  the  open  air. 

4.  That,    independently   of  all  thefe  arguments,    the 
experiment  is  incomplete.     Even  on  the  iuppofition   of 
the  exiftence  of  fexes  in  plants,  the  eonclufion  drawn  from 
it  cannot  be  admitted.     The  fame  change,  for  inftance, 
might  have  happened,  if,  inftead  of  a  white  female  and 
red  male,  a  white  female  had  been  imprifoncd  with  a  red 
female.     In  this  cafe  there  could  be  no  commixture  of 
fexes ;  and  yet,  it  is  highly  probable,  that  both  would 
have  ripened  their  feeds,  and  that  thefe  feeds  would  have 
produced  plants  differently  coloured  from  the  fame  varie- 
ties growing  in  a  natural  ftate.     Till  thefe  indifpenfible 
parts  of  the  experiment,  therefore,  be  tried,  nothing  can 
be  concluded  in  favour  of  the  fexual  fyflem. 

5.  That   flowers  growing  from  the  fame  root,  fruits 
upon  the  fame  tree,  or  raifed  from  feeds  of  the  fame  in- 
dividual plant,  often  vary  in  colour,  fize,  figure,   and 
texture.     Thefe  varieties  are  apparent  to  the  mod  fuper- 
ficial  obfervers ;  but  they  can  never,  with  any  degree  of 
propriety,  be  afcribed  to  the  influence  of  fex.    The  caufes 
of  fuch  variations  are  rather  to  be  looked  for  in  the  ex- 
pofure  of  the  plants  with  regard  to  light  and  air,  the 
nature  of  the  foil,  the  mode  of  culture,  accidental  inju- 
ries from  dews,  from  electrical  fire,  from  the  poifon  or 
wounds  of  infects,  and  from  the  abforption  of  mineral 
folutions.     In  a  word,  if  we  are  to  hope  for  an  explana- 
tion of  thefe,  and  other  minute  changes  in  the  appear- 
ances of  plants,  recourfe  mufl  be  had  to  chemical  and 
philofophical  principles,  and  not  to  an  hypothetical  com- 
merce of  fexes. 

The  difcourfe  was  concluded  with  the  following  fenti- 
ment : — But  I  aim  not  at  complete  refutation  ;  for  expe- 
riments are  dill  to  be  made.  I  only  wiui  to  render  the 
fexual  commerce  of  plants  fufpicious,  that  the  minds  of 
men  may  be  freed  from  the  fetters  of  a  fyflem,  which 
has,  perhaps,  too  long  received  the  general  aflent  of  Eu- 
rope ;  and  that  the  ceconomy  of  the  vegetable  kingdom 
may  again  be  open  to  impartial  invefligation. 

To  remove  the  poffibility  of  male  influence  being  con- 

G  g  veyed 


234  THE   PHILOSOPHY 

veyed  by  means  of  the  wind,  or  of  infects,  about  ten  of 
twelve  years  ago,  I  thought,  if  a  female  plant  could  ripen 
her  feeds  within  doors  during  the  winter,  the  experiment 
would  infallibly  determine  the  controverfy.  With  this 
view,  I  confined  a  female  lychnis,  which  is  a  native  plant 
of  this  country,  and  gave  her  fuch  a  degree  of  heat  as 
made  her  produce  flowers  three  months  before  any  male 
flowers  of  the  fame  fpecies  were  blown  in  Britain.  The 
flowers  and  the  young  feed  had  every  appearance  of  health 
and  vigour.  But  the  plant  itfelf,  as  ufually  happens  to 
vegetables  when  forced  to  grow  in  unnatural  fituations, 
was  feeble,  flender,  and  double  the  common  length  it 
acquires  in  the  fields.  I  waited  the  event.  My  expecta- 
tions, however,  were  difappointed  ;  for  the  flowers  drop- 
ped long  before  the  feeds  were  ripened.  The  plant  was 
kept  three  years  in  the  fame  fituation ;  but  Hill  the  flow- 
ers dropped,  and  no  ripe  feeds  were  produced.  As  the 
health  of  plants,  like  that  of  animals,  depends  upon  many 
circumilances,  as  expofure  to  the  open  air,  to  light,  to 
the  agitations  of  the  wind,  which  to  them  anfwers  the 
invigorating  purpofe  of  exercife,  to  nocturnal  dews,  to 
natural  rains,  inftead  of  artificial  waterings,  &c.  I  re- 
folved  to  place  the  female  lychnis  in  a  fituation  where  me 
might  enjoy  all  thefe  advantages,  and  at  the  fame  time 
be  •  amoved  from  every  fufpicion  of  a  connection  with 
male  influence.  For  this  purpofe,  I  applied  to  my  learned 
and  ingenious  friend  Dr.  Daniel  Rutherford,  now  Pro- 
feffor  of  Botany  in  the  Univerfity  of  Edinburgh,  who, 
at  that  time,  had  a  fmall  garden,  or  rather  a  little  area, 
in  the  heart  of  the  city,  which  was  furrounded  with 
houfes  of  five  and  fix  iWies  high,  and  diftant  from  any 
male  lychnis  about  an  Englifh  mile.  Dr.  Rutherford  re- 
ceived this  female  lychnis  into  his  garden.  The  firft  fum- 
mer  after  her  admiffion,  being  enfeebled  by  her  former 
three  years  confinement,  me  dropped  her  flowers,  without 
producing  fertile  feeds.  During  three  or  four  fucceeding 
years,  however,  me  remained  in  the  fame  fituation  ;  and 
me  not  only  ripened  her  feeds,  but  thefe  feeds  vegetated, 
without  the  poffibility  of  any  male  impregnation ;  for  the 
Doctor,  after  the  young  planrs'were  in  a  ilate  of  difcri- 

mination, 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         235 

ruination,  uniformly  extirpated  all  the  males,  and  never 
could  difcover  the  veftige  of  a  fmgle  male  upon  the  fe- 
male plants.  Her  female  progeny,  however,  continued 
to  bear  fertile  feeds  for  feveral  fucceflive  generations.  If, 
after  this,  arid  fome  experiments  formerly  mentioned, 
any  fexualift  choofes  to  have  recourfe  to  the  wind,  and 
to  infects,  he  may  enjoy  his  theory  ;  but  few  men  of  pe- 
netration will  join  him  in  opinion. 

But,  if  thefe  fads  and  reafonings  mould  not  be  fuffici- 
€nt  to  convince  every  believer  in  the  fexual  fyftem  of 
plants  that  the  hypothecs  has  no  foundation  in  Nature, 
Spallanzani,  a  late  ingenious  Italian  naturalift,  has,  by 
a  number  of  experiments,  removed  the  poffibility  of  any 
rational  doubt  on  the  fubjeft. 

Spallanzani,  in  order  to  make  a  complete  invefligation 
of  this  fubjecl,  performed  a  number  of  experiments  on 
what  are  called  hermaphrodite,  monoecious,  and  dioicous  plants. 

Hermaphrodite  plants  comprehend  all  thofe  which  have 
ftamina  and  piftils,  or  the  male  and  female  organs,  in  the 
fame  flowers.  To  difcover  whether  the  pollen  had  any 
influence  upon  the  fertility  of  the  feeds,  Spallanzani  forced 
open  the  petals,  or  flower  leaves,  fome  time  before  they 
began  to  expand.  He  then  cut  off  all  the  ilamina,  or 
male  parts,  before  the  fuppofed  fcecundating  dufl  was 
ripe,  leaving  the  female  part  to  its  fate.  The  refult  was, 
that,  in  many  of  the  plants,  the  feeds  did  not  ripen,  or 
even  acquire  their  full  fize ;  in  others,  they  grew  to  the 
natural  fize ;  but,  after  being  committed  to  the  ground, 
they  did  not  germinate.  Above  thirty  years  ago,  a  iimi- 
lar  fet  of  experiments  were  made,  in  the  Botanic  Garden 
at  Edinburgh,  by  the  late  Dr.  Alfton,  the  then  Profeffor 
of  Botany.  But,  whether  Dr.  Alfton's  experiments  were 
performed  with  greater  dexterity  than  thofe  of  Spallan- 
zani, it  is  impoflible  to  determine.  The  event,  however, 
was  the  reverfe;  for  Dr.  Alflon's  plants,  which  were 
treated  in  the  fame  manner  with  thofe  of  Spallanzani, 
not  only  ripened  their  feeds,  but  thefe  feeds,  when  fown, 
were  found  to  be  as  fertile  as  if  no  fuch  operation  had 
been  performed.  But  no  experiments  of  this  kind  can  be 
made  with  any  degree  of  certainty  upon  hermaphrodite 

plants ; 


236  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

plants ;  becaufe  they  are  impracticable,  without  wound- 
ing and  injuring  the  tender  flowers.  By  forcing  open  the 
petals  fome  days  before  they  would  naturally  unfold,  the 
interior  parts  of  the  flowers  are  prematurely  expofed  to 
the  action  of  the  air,  of  dews,  and  of  the  fun's  rays. 
Befides,  no  man  can  determine  what  changes  the  young 
feeds  may  undergo,  what  injury  they  may  fuller,  by  an 
unnatural  deprivation  of  the  ftamina.  In  every  flower 
treated  in  this  rough  manner, an  extravafation  of  lap  muft 
unavoidably  be  produced.  If  a  pregnant  animal  is  wound- 
ed, and  in  a  part  too  fo  intimately  connected  with  the 
foetus,  what  reafon  have  we  to  expert  a  feitile  and  well- 
proportioned  offspring  ? 

Spallanzani  next  proceeded  to  trials  on  the  monoecious 
plants,  or  thofe  which  bear  both  male  and  female  flowers 
Separately  on  the  fame  individual.  In  fpring  1777,  he 
fowed  two  fpecies  of  the  pompion,  which  belong  to  this 
divifion  of  plants,  in  a  fituation  removed  from  every  fuf- 
picion  of  foreign  connection  by  means  of  the  wind  or  of 
infects.  '  In  the  beginning  of  June,'  fays  he,  *  two  indi- 
'  viduals,  for  I  had  ordered  two  only  to  be  raifed,  were 

*  juft  beginning  to  put  forth  a  few  flower-buds  towards  the 
6  bottom  of  the  ftalk.     At  this  early  period,  the  male 

*  flowers   may  be  eafily  diftinguifhed  from  the  female. 
'  The  former,  alfo  denominated  barren  by  botanifls,  have 
6  a  ilender  fialk  ;  while  the  ftalk  of  the  latter,  where  it 

*  joins  the  calyx,  forms  a  tumor,  confiding  of  the  imma- 

*  ture  fruit.     I  paid  daily  vifits  to  thefe  two  individuals, 
6  and  very  carefully  watched  the  progrefs  of  both  forts  of 
'  flowers.     That  there  might  be  no  fufpicion  of  the  pollen 

*  exerting  any  influence  upon  the  females,  the  males  were 

*  deftroyed  at  their  firft  appearance.     As  fruit,  when  a 

*  fmall  quantity  only  is  left  upon  a  plant,  is  fooner  ripe, 

*  and  grows  to  a  larger  fize,  becaufe  it  receives  a  greater 

*  quantity  of  nutritious  juice,  I  left  on  each  of  my  two 

*  individuals  two  flowers  only.    The  buds  that  made  their 
'  appearance  afterwards  were  taken  away,  along  with  the 

*  male  flowers.     Meanwhile,  my  four  gourds  grew  rapid- 
6  Iy.     Finding  that,  towards  the  middle  of  September, 
«  they  had  attained  the  ufual  full  fize,  I  gathered  one,  in 

c  order 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  237 

c  order  to  infpcrt  the  internal  parts.     The  flefh  was  too 

*  foft,  becaufe  the  fruit  was  not  thoroughly  ripe  ;  but,  in 
6  colour,  ftructure,  and  tafte,  it  refembled  fruit  produced 

*  by   plants  which  had  their  male  flowers. — The  feeds 

*  were  in  great  number,  and,  as   well  internally  as   ex- 
6  ternally,  were  perfectly  formed. — At   the  end  of  the 
'  month,  the  other  three  gourds  were  quite  ripe.    I  there- 
'  fore  gathered  them,  and  put  the  feeds  of  each  into  a  fe- 

*  parate  box,  that  I  might  be  able  to  examine  them  at 
c  pleafure.    The  lobes  filled  the  whole  infide  of  the  feeds, 

*  and  had  all  the  characters  of  perfect  maturity, 

4    '  Thus  far/  continues  our  author,  '  there  is  a  perfect 

*  agreement  with  the  obfervations  made  on  the  feeds  of 

*  fome  hermaphrodite  plants,    which    feemed,    nqtwith- 
'  {landing  they  were  deprived  of  the  efficacy  of  the  pollen, 

*  to  have  acquired  the  fame  degree  of  perfection  as  thofe 
6  impregnated  in  the  ufual  manner.     But,  as  they  did  not 

*  grow,  however  perfect  they  might  be  in  appearance,  be- 
'  caufe  they  had  not  been  vivified  by  the  pollen,  I  ima- 
6  gined,  that,  for  the  fame  reafon,  the  feeds  of  my  three 

*  gourds  would  not  grow.     It  was,  however,  proper  to 
6  make  the  experiment.     I  therefore  dried  one  hundred 
c  and  fifty  in  the  fun,  and  afterwards  planted  them  in 
'  three  pots,  fifty  in  each,  taken  from  feparate  gourds. 
'  But  the  latenefs  of  the  feafon,  it  being  the  loth  of  Oc- 
6  tober,  the  conflant  rain,  and  the  coolnefs  occafioned  by 

*  it,  circumftances  unfavourable  to  vegetation,  obliged  me. 
6  to  place  my  pots  in  a  ftove,  which,  though  it  was  not 

*  heated,  was  kept  warm  by  a  contiguous  chimney,    ^he 
'  event  did  not  by  any  means  correspond  to  my  expectation. 
6  I  took  it  for  granted,  that  none  of  the  feeds  would  germi- 
*-  nate  ;  and  yet  they  almoft  all  came  up  very  well*.' 

Here  it  is  pleafant  to  obferve  candour  and  fair  experi- 
ment triumphing  over  deep  prejudice.  From  the  above, 
and  many  other  paflages,  it  is  evident  that  Spallanzani 
was  a  keen  fexualift,  and  that  he  expected  his  experi- 
ments, inftead  of  overthrowing,  would  confirm,  his  faith  ; 
but,  like  a  true  philofopher,  he  candidly,  though  with  re- 
luctance, unhinges  his  favourite  opinion. 

'  I  referved 

*  Spallanzani's  Diflertations,  vol.  2.  p.  276,  &c.     S, 


238  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

*  I  referved  the  remainder  of  the  feeds,'  continues  Spal- 
lanzani,  *  for  another  experiment  to  be  made  the  folio w- 
c  ing  fpring.  Before  it  can  be  afferted  that  fructification 
c  has  been  complete,  it  is  necefTary,  according  to  the  de- 

*  termination  of  botanifts,  not  only  that  the  feeds  mould 

*  grow,  but  that  they  mould  alfo  be  capable  of  bring- 
4  ing  productive  feeds,    or,  in  other    words,   of  perpe- 

*  tuating  the  fpecies.     That  I  might  learn  whether  the 

*  feeds  of  my  three  gourds  enjoyed  this  prerogative,  I 

*  caufed  fome  of  them  to  be  planted  in  the  fame  place  in 

*  May  1778  ;  and,  when  they  were  grown  to  fome  fize, 

*  they  were,  as  in  the  foregoing  experiment,   carefully 

*  ftripped  of  all  their  male  flowers,  one  female  flower  on- 
6  ly  being  left  on  each  individual.     Thefe  flowers  were 
c  furnifhed  v/ith  fmall  gourds,  which  grew  ripe  towards 

*  the  beginning  of  autumn,  and  the  feeds  they  produced 

*  grew  juft  as  well  as  the  former*.' 

With  regard  to  dioicous  plants,  or  thofe  which  produce 
male  flowers  on  one  individual  and  female  flowers  on  an- 
other, they  are  by  far  the  moft  unexceptionable  fubje&s 
for  determining  the  exiftence  or  non-exiftence  of  fexes  in 
plants.  Accordingly,  Bonnet,  Fourgeroux,  and  Spallan- 
zani,  &c.  about  the  year  1770,  placed  female  plants  of 
this  defcription  in  fituations  fo  ftridly  guarded  againil  the 
poffibiiity  of  fecundating  duft  being  conveyed  to  the  fe- 
males either  by  the  air  or  by  infe&s,  that  the  fuppofition 
of  male  influence  baffles  all  the  powers  of  imagination. 
Thefe  females,  however,  uniformly  produced  ripe  feeds ; 
and  thefe  feeds  were  as  prolific  as  if  they  had  been  fur- 
rounded  with  males. 

From  the  facls  and  arguments  above  related,  and  many 
others  which  might  be  adduced,  it  appears,  that  this  beau- 
tiful theory,  derived  from  a  miflaken  analogy,  has  no 
foundation  in  Nature.  I  would  not  have  dwelt  fo  long 
on  this  fubje£t,  if  I  had  not  fmcerely  wiihed  that  the 
minds  of  men  might  be  emancipated  from  the  fetters  of  a 
fyftem  which  has  too  long  received  the  almoft  univerfal 
alfent  of  the  literal y  world;  and  that  the  ceconomy  of 

the 

*  Spallanzani's  DifTertations,  vol.  ?..  p.  278.     S. 


OF   NATURAL    HISTORY. 

the  vegetable  kingdom  may  again  be  open  to  impartial 
inquiries. 


CHAPTER       X. 

Of  the  Puberty  of  Animals. 


THE  puberty  of  animals  commences  at  that  period  of 
their  exiftence  when  Nature  endows  them  with  the 
the  power  of  multiplying  the  fpecies.  This  period  is  as 
various  as  the  different  tribes  of  animals.  In  fome  it  ar- 
rives fooner,  in  others  later  ;  but,  in  every  animal,  it 
is  accompanied  with  fome  remarkable  changes  in  confti- 
tution  and  affections.  From  infancy  to  puberty  there  is 
a  gradual  increafe  of  fize ;  but,  immediately  after  that 
period,  in  both  fexes,  the  growth  of  the  body  makes  a 
fudden  fpring,  and  acquires  redoubled  ftrength  and  acti- 
vity. The  growth  of  animals,  however,  does  not  always 
flop  at  the  age  of  puberty.  Men,  quadrupeds,  and  fiflies, 
continue  to  grow  for  lome  time  after  their  capacity  of 
multiplying.  But  moft  birds  and  infects  feem  to  acquire 
their  full  dimenfions  before  they  arrive  at  the  age  of  pu- 
berty. 

Before  puberty,  the  voice  of  a  man,  like  that  of  a  wo- 
man, is  fhrill  and  feeble.  But,  after  that  period,  it  be- 
comes rough  and  flrong.  This  effect  is  produced  by  fome 
unaccountable  and  fudden  change  in  the  organs  of  fpeech, 
which  is  not  confined  to  the  human  fpecies  ;  for  the  voice 
of  a  horfe  or  a  bull  is  deeper  after  than  before  puberty. 
In  eunuchs  no  fuch  alteration  of  voice  is  to  be  obferved  ; 
for  their  voice,  though  fhrill  and  piercing,  can  never 
produce  a  low  or  deep  note.  At  this  period,  too,  that 
diftinguifhing  characteriftic  of  man,  the  beard,  begins  to 
appear,  together  with  other  external  and  internal  changes, 
which  it  is  unneceffary  to  relate.  But  eunuchs  are  totally 

deftitute 


24o  THEPHILOSOPHY 

deditute  of  beards.    Thefe  two  facts  indicate  a  connexion 
which  merits  the  attention  of  philofophers. 

With  regard  to  the  female  fex,  they  are  by  no  means 
exempted  from  conftitutional  changes  when  they  arrive 
at  the  age  of  puberty.  The  alteration  in  the  tone  of  their 
voice,  if  it  does  happen,  is  hardly  perceptible.  Nei- 
ther are  their  faces  deformed  by  a  beard,  which,  according 
to  our  prefent  ideas,  would  have  a  difgufting  effect.  At 
this  period,  however,  their  mammae  fwell,  and  a  perio- 
dical evacuation  takes  place,  which  produces  wonderful 
revolutions  in  their  conftitution  and  affe&ions.  In  both 
fexes,  the  mental  changes  are  not  lefs  remarkable  than 
the  corporeal.  The  powers  of  the  mind  expand,  the  force 
of  genius  is  felt,  and  very  different  objects  folicit  atten- 
tion :  Inftead  of  puerile  amufemenrs,  ambition,  a  warm 
and  unaffedted  friendfhip,  a  generofity  and  unfufpicious 
demeanour,  both  in  words  and  a&ions,  are  the  almofl 
universal  characteriftics  of  this  period  of  human  life.  I 
mention  it  with  pleafure,  that,  as  far  as  my  obfervation 
extends,  in  youth,  unlefs  they  are  corrupted  by  example, 
by  neglect,  or  by  other  caufes,  all  men  are  honeft,  friend- 
ly, generous,  and  humane.  If  this  remark  be  true,  Na- 
ture is  fully  exculpated.  But,  when  a  young  man  enters 
into  the  bufmefs  of  life,  his  candour  and  ingenuoufnefs 
foon  meet  with  a  fhock.  This  is  the  painful  reverfe.  In- 
ftead of  liberality  and  integrity  of  conduct,  he  has  to 
encounter  with  felfifhnefs,  chicane,  and  too  often  with 
direct  villainy.  This  unhappy  difcovery  turns  his  thoughts 
into  a  different  current,  contracts  the  noble  opennefs  of 
his  heart,  renders  him  fufpicious  and  guarded,  and,  if 
he  fhall  chance  to  retain  his  integrity,  he  is  obliged  to 
aflfume,  at  lead,  the  appearance  of  jealoufy  and  deceit. 
I  by  no  means  intend  this  to  Jbe  the  univerfal  character  of 
mankind ;  I  only  lament  that  it  is  too  general. 

In  every  race  of  mankind  of  which  we  have  any  know- 
ledge, the  females  arrive  fooner  at  puberty  than  the  males. 
But,  the  age  of  puberty  differs  in  different  countries. 
This  difference  feems  to  originate  from  two  caufes,  the 
temperature  of  the  climate,  and  the  quality  of  the  food. 
Children  of  citizens,  and  of  opulent  parents,  who  are  fed 

with 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         241 

with  rich  and  nourifhing  victuals,  arrive  fooner  at  this 
{late.  Children,  on  the  contrary,  brought  up  in  the 
country,  or  \vhofe  parents  are  poor,  require  two  or  three 
years  longer ;  becaufe  their  food  is  not  only  coarfe,  but 
too  fparingly  given.  In  the  fouthern  regions  of  Europe, 
and  in  large  cities,  the  females  arrive  at  puberty  about 
the  age  of  twelve,  and  the  males  about  fourteen.  But,  in 
northern  climates,  and  in  the  country,  girls  hardly  come 
to  maturity  till  they  are  fourteen,  and  boys  not  before  fix- 
teen.  In  the  warmed  regions  of  Alia,  Africa,  and  Ame- 
rica, the  age  of  puberty  in  females  commences  at  ten,  and 
fometimes  at  nine. 

After  puberty,  the  Count  de  Buffon  remarks,  c  mar- 

*  riage  is  the  natural  flate  of  man.     A  man  ought  to  have 
c  but  one  wife,  and  a  woman  but  one  huiband.     This  is 
6  the  law  of  Nature ;  for  the  number  of  females  is  nearly 
6  equal  to  that  of  the  males.     Such  laws  as  have  been  en- 
6  acted  in  oppofition  to  this  natural  principle,  have  origi- 

*  nated  folely  from  tyranny  and  ignorance.     Reafon,  hu- 

*  inanity,  and  juflice,  revolt  againft  thofe  odious  feraglios, 
'  in  which  the  liberty  and  the  affections  of  many  women 
c  are  facrificed  to  the  brutal  paiGon  of  a  fingle  man.    Does 
'  this  unnatural  pre-emineace  render  thofe  tyrants  of  the 
6  human  race  more  happy  ?   No  !    Surrounded  with  eu- 
4  nuchs,  and  with -women  who  are  ufelefs  to  themfelves 
c  and  to  other  men,  they  are  tormented  with  the  conflant 
'  appearance  of  that  accumulated  load  of  mifery  they  have 
'  created.' 

All  animals,  as  well  as  thofe  of  the  human  fpecies,  un- 
dergo, at  the  age  of  puberty,  fimilar  changes  in  the  form 
of  their  bodies,  and  in  the  difpofitions  of  their  minds. 
From  mild,  placid,  and  gentle,  they  become  bold,  reliefs, 
and  ungovernable.  Their  bodies  are  then,  in  flrength 
and  fymmetry,  perfectly  accommodated  to  the  new  fenti- 
ments  which  Nature,  for  wife  purpofes,  excites  in  their 
minds.  In  the  deer  kind,  the  horns  of  the  males  appear 
not  till  they  are  fit  for  multiplying  the  fpecies.  At  this 
period,  the  crefl,  the  wattles,  and  the  plumage  of  the 
male  gallinaceous  birds  acquire  additional  beauty,  and 
their  courage  and  flrength  are  greatly  augmented.  The 

H  h  pigeon, 


242  T  H  E     PHILOSOPH  Y 

pigeon,  inftead  of  being  querulous,  timid,  and  voracious^ 
whenever  the  age  of  puberty  arrives,  feels  emotions  of  a 
very  different  kind.  Confcious  of  the  new  vigour  he  ha* 
acquired,  he  affumes  a  bold  and  important  air.  He  flruts 
about  with  a  majeftic  pride,  and  immediately  addrefTes, 
with  all  the  gaiety  of  a  lover,  fome  favourite  female, 
whom  he  folicits  with  the  moll  afiiduous  gallantry  and  at- 
tention. After  the  coy  female  gives  her  affent,  their  after 
conduct  exhibits  fuch  a  mutual  and  ardent  affection,  and 
fuch  a  conftant  fidelity,  as  afford  no  inconfiderable  pat- 
tern to  the  human  fpecies. 

With  regard  to  fifties,  we  are  totally  ignorant  of  the 
periods  when  the  different  tribes  of  them  acquire  the  power 
of  multiplying.  From  the  element  they  inhabit,  from  the 
rapidity  of  their  motions,  and  from  their  defultory  and 
wandering  mode  of  living,  we  are  equally  ignorant  of 
many  other  important  parts  of  their  ^economy  and  man- 
ners. This  continues  to  be  an  ample  field  for  future  in- 
veftigation,  and  highly  worthy  the  attention  of  naturalifls. 

The  ceconomy  and  manners  of  infecls  are  more  open  to 
infpe&ion.  Thofe  of  the  winged  tribes  undergo  many 
changes,  both  in  figure  and  ftructure,  before  they  arrive 
at  the  age  of  puberty.  They  firft  efcape  from  the  eggs 
in  the  form  of  minute  caterpillars.  In  this  ftate  they  are 
exceedingly  voracious,  and  grow  with  rapidity  to  their 
full  fize ;  but  they  are  deftitute  both  of  the  power  and 
of  the  organs  neceffary  for  the  multiplication  of  the 
fpecies.  They  are  next  transformed  into  chryfalids  :  In 
this  flate,  their  bodies  are  covered  with  a  kind  of  cruft, 
or  fhell,  from  which  the  animals  have  again  to  efcape,  as 
from  a  fecond  egg.  In  this  imprifoned  condition,  they 
remain  during  a  longer  or  fhorter  period,  according  to  the 
fpecies,  or  to  the  feafon  of  the  year  in  which  they  are  trans- 
formed. After  their  transformation  into  flies,  they  burfi 
this  cruft,  or  fhell,  and  appear  in  the  form  of  flies,  furnifh- 
ed  with  wings,  legs,  feelers,  &c.  of  all  which  they  were 
deftitute  in  their  former  ftate.  When  transformed  into 
flies,  caterpillars  have  arrived  at  the  age  of  puberty.  They 
are  now  perfect  animals,  and  endowed  with  the  faculty  of 
tranfmitting  a  numerous  progeny  to  pollerity. 

CHAP- 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         243 


CHAPTER      XI. 

Of  Love. 


TH  E  great  intention  of  Nature,  in  endowing  almoft 
every  animal  with  a  fexual  attachment,  is  the  mul- 
tiplication and  continuation  of  the  refpective  fpecies. 
But,  with  regard  to  man,  and,  in  an  inferior  degree,  to 
all  pairing  animals,  love  is  the  fource  of  many  other  fo- 
cial  and  important  advantages.  Love,  or  a  ftrong  affecti- 
on for  a  particular  woman,  is,  to  young  men,  perhaps, 
one  of  the  greatefl  incentives  to  virtue  and  propriety  of 
conduct.  In  northern  countries,  it  feldom  rifes  to  that  de- 
gree of  frenzy,  which,  in  warmer  climates,  not  only  en- 
groffes  the  whole  attention,  but  often  totally  unhinges  the 
powers  of  the  mind.  In  northern  regions,  liowever,  it 
occupies  more  gently  the  imagination,  gives  a  chearful- 
nefs  and  alacrity  to  the  bufmefs  or  fludies  of  life,  and,  if 
reciprocal,  diffufes  over  the  mind  and  body  a  placid  hap- 
pinefs,  and  a  tranquillity  of  difpofition,  which  greatly  con- 
tribute to  the  health  and  vigour  of  both.  A  young  man 
in  love  thinks  that  the  eyes  of  his  favourite  continually  be- 
hold him.  Through  this  amiable  medium  he  views  all 
his  actions,  and  even  his  thoughts.  His  affection  and  ve- 
neration are  fo  great,  that  he  is,  in  fome  meafure,  deter- 
red from  regarding  any  other  woman,  and,  what  is  of 
more  importance,  from  indulging  any  loofe  or  irregular 
appetite.  The  difpofitions  and  affections  of  the  female 
are  the  fame  with  thofe  of  the  male.  Her  attention  is 
completely  engroffed;  and  me  never  thinks  or  dreams  of 
any  man,  but  cf  him  who  is  the  object  of  her  affection. 
A  young  man  and  a  young  woman  in  love  exhibit  the 
moil  innocent  and  the  mod  amiable  picture  of  humaa 
nature.  Actuated  by  no  interefted  motives,  and  regard- 

lefs 


244  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

lefs  of  future  contingencies,  they  obey  the  fupreme  com- 
mand of  Nature.  How  much  is  it  to  be  lamented,  that, 
from  the  cruel,  but  perhaps  unavoidable,  inftitutions  and 
cuftoms  of  civil  focieties,  it  is  fo  often  not  only  prudent, 
but  necefTary,  to  check,  and  even  to  overcome,  this  power- 
ful law  of  Nature  ? 

Many  are  the  advantages  that  mankind  derive  from  fo- 
ciety  and  regular  governments,  and  we  fhould  chearfully 
fubmit  to  thofe  hardfhips  and  inconveniencies  to  which 
they  give  rife.  But  every  man,  however  fubmiffive  to  the 
laws  of  his  country,  muft  regret  that  neceffity  which  makes 
them  oppofe  any  of  the  laws  of  Nature,  and  efpecially  the 
alrnort  irrefiftible  law  of  love. 

In  the  prefent  ftate  of  fociety,  it  muft  be  acknowledg- 
ed, early  marriages,  among  people  in  the  ordinary  and 
dependent  ranks  of  life,  are  extremely  hazardous.  When 
bc/th  parties  are  induftrious  and  ceconomical,  fuch  marria- 
ges are  not  only  the  moft  natural,  but  are  productive  of 
the  greateft  happinefs  and  cordiality.  But  the  reverfe  is 
dreadful !  Children,  flraitened  circurnftances,  refentment 
of  parents,  whether  real  or  affecled,  too  often  produce  all 
the  complicated  miferies  to  which  mankind,  in  their  loweft 
ftate  of  degradation,  can  be  fub  jetted.  Among  this  order 
of  men,  therefore,  it  is  of  the  higheft  importance  that  the 
law  of  Nature  iliould  yield,  for  fome  time  at  lead,  to  the 
institutions  of  fociety,  and  to  thofe  prudential  motives 
which  parents  learn  from  experience  to  be  ingredients  ef- 
J.to  the  comfort  and  happinefs  of  life. 

Men  of  fortune  and  of  opulence  have  it  in  their  power 
to  obey  the  laws  of  Nature  and  of  love  ;  and  fome  ex- 
amples, though  few  in  number,  occafionally  happen,  of 
rich  men  acting  a  difinterefted  part  in  their  matrimonial 
engagements.  Inftead  of  following  the  dictates  of  Na- 
ture, many  men  of  fortune  and  independence,  difregard- 
irj£~  the  high  privilege  they  enjoy,  facrifice  their  tafte, 
their  pafiion,  and  often  their  happinefs  during  life,  at  the 
•fiirine  of  Gold.  To  accomplish  this  fordid  end,  they 
often  embrace  deformity,  diieafe,  ignorance,  peevifhnefs, 
and  every  tiling  that  is  difgufting  to  human  nature.  Let 
fuch  individuals  fufFer  their  puniihment.  But  what  are 

the 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         245 

the  confequenccs  to  the  public  ?  Men  of  rank,  in  all  na- 
tions and  governments,  not  only  regulate,  in  a  great  mea- 
fure,  the  manners  of  their  inferiors,  but  are  the  natural 
guardians  of  the  flate.  For  thefe  important  purpofes, 
their  minds  fhouid  be  noble,  generous,  and  bold ;  and 
their  bodies  fhouid  be  flrong,  mafculine,  fit  to  encounter 
the  fatigues  of  war,  and  to  repel  every  hoflile  affault  that 
may  be  made  upon  their  country,  But,  when  men  of  this 
defcription,  whatever  be  their  motives,  intermarry  with 
weak,  deformed,  puny,  or  difeafed  females,  their  progeny 
mufi  of  necefTity  degenerate.  The  flrength,  beauty,  and 
fymmetry  of  their  anceflors  are,  perhaps,  forever  loft. 
What  js  flill  more  to  be  regretted,  debility  of  body  is  almofl 
univerfally  accompanied  with  weaknefs  of  mind.  Thus, 
by  the  avarice,  ambition,  or  inattention,  of  one  indivi- 
dual, a  noble  and  generous  race  is  completely  destroyed. 
By  reverfmg  this  conduct,  it  is  true,  the  breed  may  again 
be  mended  ;  but,  to  repair  a  fingle  breach,  many  genera- 
tions, endowed  with  prudence  and  circumfpedion,  will  be 
requifite.  A  fucceflive  degeneration,  however,  is  an  in- 
fallible confequence  of  imprudent  or  interefted  marriages 
of  this  kind.  One  puny  race  may  for  fome  time  be  fuc- 
ceeded  by  another,  till  at  lafl  their  conflitutions  become 
fo  feeble  that  the  animals  lofe  the  faculty  of  multiplying 
their  fpecies.  This  gradual  degeneration  is  one  great 
caufe  of  the  total  extinction  of  confpicuous  and  noble  fa- 
milies. That  it  fhouid  be  fo,  is  a  wife  and  beneficent  in- 
flitution  of  Nature ;  for,  if  fuch  debilitated  races  were 
continued,  a  univerfal  degenertion  would  foon  take  place, 
and  mankind  would  be  unable  to  perform  the  duties,  or 
to  undergo  the  labours,  of  life.  Nature  firft  chaftifes,  and 
at  lad  extirpates,  all  thofe  who  acl;  contrary  to  her  efla- 
bli fried  laws. 

Befide  the  pleafures  refulting  from  fociety,  and  from 
mutual  attachment  in  man,  and  in  pairing  animals,  the 
natural  love  of  offspring  is  a  fource  of  the  mofl  engaging 
endearments.  The  innocence  and  helplefs  condition  of 
infants  call  forth  our  pity  and  protection.  When  a  little 
farther  advanced,  their  beauty,  their  fmiles,  and  their 
fprightlinefs,  excite  the  mofl  agreeable  emotions.  In 

their 


THEPHILOSOPHY 

their  progrefs  from  infancy  to  manhood,  we  obferve  with 
pleafure  the  unfolding  of  their  mental  powers.  They 
imitate  our  actions  long  before  they  can  exprefs  their  de- 
fires,  or  their  wants,  by  language.  Their  attempts  in  the 
acquifition  of  language  are  extremely  curious  and  amuf- 
ing.  Their  firfl  fyftem  of  grammar  confifts  entirely  of 
fubftantive  nouns.  It  is  long  before  they  learn  the  ufe  of 
adjectives  or  of  copulatives,  and  ftill  longer  before  they 
employ  the  verb.  Their  fpeeches  are  fhort,  aukward,  and 
blundering;  but  they  are  animated,  and  uttered  with 
aftonifhing  force  and  vivacity  of  exprefiion  in  their  eyes, 
and  in  the  geftures  of  their  bodies.  At  this  period  of 
life,  children  are  folely  actuated  by  Nature  and -imitation. 
After  they  acquire  words  fufficient  for  conveying  the  few 
ideas  they  poffefs,  they  begin  to  reafon,  or  rather  to  em- 
ploy the  language  of  reafoning  ;  for,  at  this  period  of  life, 
children,  when  they  mean  to  give  a  reafon  why  they  mould 
have  any  indulgence  or  gratification,  almoft  univerfally 
argue  againft  themfelves,  and  employ  a  reafon  why  their 
defires  mould  not  be  granted.  This  ridiculous  mode  of 
-reafoning  excites  laughter,  and  affords  pleafure  and  amufe- 
ment  to  the  parents.  It  likewife  fhows,  that  our  firft  at- 
tempt toward  reafoning  is  principally,  if  not  folely,  the 
eftecl  of  imitation  ;  for  the  reafoning  power,  at  this  peri- 
od, is  not  fully  unfolded,  becaufe  many  human  inflincls, , 
or  mental  qualities,  have  not  yet  been  called  forth  into 
action.  But  here  I  muft  flop.  To  do  juftice  to  this  in- 
terefling  fubjecl  would  require  volumes. 

The  love  of  offspring,  which,  though  not  univerfal,  is 
perhaps  the  ftrongeft  and  mofl  active  principle  in  human 
nature.  It  overcomes  the  fenfe  of  pain,  and  fometimes 
even  the  principle  of  felf-prefervation.  A  remarkable  and 
a  melancholy  example  of  the  ftrength  of  parental  affe&i- 
on  was  lately  exhibited,  and,  for  the  honour  of  our  fpe- 
cies,  deferves  to  be  recorded.  In  the  beginning  of  Ja- 
nuary 1786,  the  Halfewell  Eafl-Indiaman,  Captain  Rich- 
ard Pierce,  was  unfortunately  wrecked  on  the  coafl  of 
Dorfetfhire.  Befide  feveral  other  ladies,  Captain  Pierce 
'had  two  of  his  own  daughters  on  board.  When  the  fhip 
was  in  the  extremity  of  danger,  fome  of  the  company, 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         247 

by  fwimming,  and  other  feats  of  activity,  got  upon  a  rock, 
In  this  dreadful  fituation,  Captain  Pierce  afked  Mr.  Ro- 
gers, his  third  mate,  if  any  plan  could  be  devifed  for 
faving  the  ladies  ?  Mr.  Rogers  replied,  c  It  is  impoffible! 
c  but  you  may  fave  yourfelf.'  Upon  which  the  Captain, 
addreffing  himfelf  to  his  daughters,  and  enfolding  them 
in  his  arms,  faid,  '  Then,  my  dear  children,  we  mail  not 
'  part ;  we  mall  perifli  together  !'  Mr.  Rogers  quitted  the 
ihip  and  reached  the  rock  :  An  univerfal  ihriek  of  defpair 
was  heard,  in  which  the  voices  of  female  diflrefs  and  horror 
were  lamentably  diftinguimable.  In  a  few  moments  all  was 
hufhed  ;  the  fhip,  with  every  perfon  on  board,  had  then 
gone  to  the  bottom.  Parents  chearfully  fubmit  to  the 
hardeft  labour,  and  expofe  themfelves  to  the  greateft  dan- 
gers, in  order  to  procure  nourifhment  to  their  young,  or 
to  protect  them  from  injury. 

A  bitch,  during  the  operation  of  diflection,  licked  her 
young,  whofe  prefence  feemed  to  make  her  forget  the  moft 
excruciating  tortures  ;  and,  when  they  were  removed,  me 
uttered  the  mod  dolorous  cries.  Certain  fpecies  of  fpiders 
inclofe  their  eggs  in  a  filken  bag  fpun  and  wove  by  them- 
felves. This  bag  they  fix  to  their  back,  and  carry  it 
along  them  wherever  they  go.  v  They  are  extremely  nim- 
ble in  their  motions.  But,  when  the  bag  is  forced  from 
a  fpider  of  this  kind,  her  natural  agility  forfakes  her, 
and  me  falls  into  a  languid  flate.  When  the  bag  is  again 
prfiented  to  her,  me  inftantly  feizes  it,  and  carries  it  off 
with  rapidity.  The  young  fpiders  no  fooner  efcape  from 
the  eggs  than  they  dexteroufly  arrange  themfelves  on  the 
back  of  the  mother,  who  continues  for  fome  time  to  carry 
them  about  with  her,  and  to  fupply  all  their  wants.  An- 
other fpecies  of  fpider  attaches  her  bag  of  eggs  to  her 
belly.  This  fpider  is  likewife  very  agile,  and  fo  ferocious 
and  determined  in  the  protection  of  her  eggs,  that  me  has 
been  known  Jo  fuffer  jdeath  rather  than  relinquifh  them. 
The  deer  fpontaneoufly  prefents  herfelf  to  be  chaced  by 
the  dogs,  to  prevent  them  from  attacking  her  fawn.  When 
the  fox  perceives  that  her  young  have  been  difturbed  in 
her  abfence,  flie  carries  them  off,  one  after  another,  and 
conceals  them  in  a  new  retreat.  Wafps  feed  their  young, 

when 


248  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

when  in  the  worm  or  caterpillar  date,  in  the  fame  man- 
ner as  pigeons  and  other  birds  that  difgorge.    The  pigeon, 
after  fwallowing  grain,  retains  it  for  foine  time  in   her 
ftomach,  till  it  is  foftened  and  macerated  :    She  then  dif- 
gorges,  and  throws  it  into  the  mouths  of  her  young.     c  In 
the  fame  manner,'  fays  Reaumur,  '  I  have  obferved  a 
female  wafp  fwallow  a  large  portion  of  an  infect  :  In  a 
fhort  time  afterwards,  me  traveried  the  different  cells  of 
her  neft,  difgorged  the  contents  of  her  ftomach,  and 
distributed  food  in  this  half-digefted  form  to  her  young 
worms  *.' 

All  animals,  man  perhaps  not  excepted,  acquire  a  dou- 
ble portion  of  force  and  courage  after  they  bring  forth. 
A  cow,  at  lead  in  a  domeftic  ftate,  is  a  placid  and  phleg- 
matic animal :  But,  whenever  me  produces  a  calf,  a  won- 
derful change  is  exhibited :  She  inftantly  becomes  vigi- 
lant, aclive,  and  even  ferocious,  in  the  defence  of  her 
young.  A  lionefs  deprived  of  her  cubs  prefents  the  moft 
dreadful  piclure  of  anxiety,  rage,  and  rapacity.  De- 
fcending  lower  in  the  fcale  of  animation,  the  fame  change 
is  to  be  remarked.  A  domeftic  hen  is  a  timid,  indocile, 
and  obftinately-ftupid  creature.  Though  chaced,  harraff- 
ed,  and  even  put  in  danger  of  her  life,  fifty  times  in  a  day, 
me  never  learns  to  avoid  a  garden,  or  any  particular  place 
which  fhe  is  accuftomed  to  frequent,  or  to  which  me  is 
led  by  her  appetite  for  food.  But,  the  moment  her  chic- 
kens are  hatched,  inftead  of  her  ufual  timidity,  me  be- 
comes as  bold  as  a  lion.  When  (he  thinks  her  young  are 
in  danger,  fhe  briftles  up  her  feathers,  affumes  a  fierce- 
nefs  in  her  eye,  makes  an  alarming  noife,  and  attacks,  in 
the  moft  furious  manner,  and  without  diftinclion,  every 
animal  that  comes  near  her.  By  the  fuddennefs  of  her 
onfets,  (he  often  alarms  men,  and  actually  intimidates  and 
beats  off  dogs  and  other  animals  that  could  devour  her  in 
an  inftant. 

Though  feveral  of  the  infect  tribes  difcover  a  ftrong 
attachment  to  their  young,  yet  all  thofe  which  undergo 
transformations,  and  do  not  form  focieties,  mud  be  com- 
pletely ignorant  of  the  exiftence  of  their  progeny  ;  be- 
en ufe, 

*  Reaumur,  torn.  11.  pag.  230.  I2rr,oedit.     S. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          249 

caufe,  in  general,  the  parents  die  before  the  young  are 
hatched.  Nature,  however,  has  endowed  thofe  fpecies 
with  an  inftinct  which  produces  all  the  effects  of  parental 
affection  :  They  uniformly  depofit  their  eggs  in  fubftances 
which  afford  to  the  young,  immediately  after  their  efcape 
from  the  egg,  a  nourifhment  adapted  to,  their  refpe&ive 
conltitutions,  and  a  comfortable  and  fafe  protection  from 
injury.  Thus  Nature,  ever  attentive  to  the  continuation 
and  happinefs  of  her  productions,  however  feemingly 
infignificant  in  the  fcale  of  being,  often  employs  very  dif- 
ferent means  to  accomplifh  the  fame  beneficent  purpofes. 

Nature  has  unqueftionably  attached  pleafure  to  all  the 
neceflary  functions  of  animals.  But  this  pleafure  cannot 
be  confidered  as  the  original  caufe  of  any  particular  action  ; 
for  the  experiment  mult  be  made  before  the  animal  can  dil- 
cover  whether  the  refult  is  to  be  agreeable  or  difagreeable. 
The  truth  is,  that  Nature  has  beftowed  on  the  minds  of 
all  animated  creatures  a  number  of  laws  or  inftincts  per- 
fectly accommodated  to  the  fpecies,  and  which  irrefiftibly 
compel  them  to  perform  certain  actions.  The  effects  of 
thefe  laws  we  perceive  :  But  the  caufes,  or  the  modes  by 
which  they  operate  on  animal  rninds,  are  infcrutable. 
We  may  and  muft  admire,  but  we  can  never  penetrate 
the  myfteries  of  Nature. 

Bonnet,  and  fome  other  naturalifls,  imagine  they  are 
exhibiting  the  caufes  of  that  ftrong  and  mutual  attachment 
between  parents  and  their  offspring,  when  they  tell  us, 
that, ,  in  man,  and  quadrupeds,  arid  birds,  the  mother  is 
fond  of  her  young,  becaufe  their  natural  adions  give  rife 
to  agreeable  fenfations ;  that,  from  the  ftructure  of  the 
mammae,  a  gentle,  but  pleafant,  fenfation,  is  excited  by 
the  action  of  fucking  ;  that  the  mother  is  often  incom- 
moded by  too  great  a  quantity  of  milk,  and  that  fucking 
relieves  her;  that  the  young  love  their  mother,  becaufe 
me  feeds,  protects,  and  communicates  to  them  a  cherifh- 
ing  warmth ;  that,  among  the  feathered  tribes,  and  par- 
ticularly thofe  which  fit  upon  their  young,  by  the  gentle 
motions  of  the  little  ones,  an  agreeable  fenfation  is  excited 
in  the  belly  of  the  mother,  which  is  then  frequently  de- 
prived of  feathers.  All  thefe  fources  of  reciprocal  pleafure 

I  i  may 


250  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

may  be  true :  But  Hill  they  are  only  effects,  and  not  , 
original  caufes,  of  filial  and  parental  affection ;  for  that 
mutual  attachment  exifts  the  moment  after  the  young 
animals  come  into  the  world,  and,  of  courfe,  previous 
to  all  experience  of  titillation,  of  heat,  of  habit,  or  of 
any  other  circumftances  that  may,  perhaps,  contribute 
to  ftrengthen  or  prolong  the  exertion  of  the  primary  caufe, 
which  mud  remain  forever  concealed  from  human  pene- 
tration. 

In  moft  animals,  except  the  human  fpecies,  parental 
and  filial  affection  ceafe  whenever  the  young  are  able  to 
provide  for  themfelves.  The  pleafures  derived  from  fuck- 
ing, and  from  other  circumftances  formerly  mentioned, 
might  for  fome  time  remain ;  but  the  young  grow  large, 
unwieldy,  petulant,  and  enter  into  competitions  for  food, 
which  not  only  contribute  to  alienate  the  affeclion  of  the 
parents,  but  even  to  excite  refentment  and  averfion. 
Thefe,  however,  are  only  fecondary  caufes.  The  purpo- 
fes  of  Nature  are  fulfilled.  The  ardour  of  affection,  which 
was  indifpenfably  neceflary  to  the  protection  and  rearing 
of  the  young,  being  now  no  longer  ufeful,  is  fo  totally 
extinguilhed,  that  neither  the  parents  nor  the  offspring 
are  capable  of  recognizing  one  another.  This  temporary 
and  amiable  inftinct  is  obliterated,  and  never  revives  till 
the  fervours  of  love  are  again  felt,  and  a  new  progeny 
appear. 

Marriage,  or  pairing,  though  by  no  means  an  univerfal 
inftitution  of  Nature,  is  not  unfrequently  exhibited  in 
the  animal  creation.  With  regard  to  man,  both  male 
and  female  are  inftin&ively  impelled  to  make  a  fele&ion. 
The  force  of  this  natural  impulfe  is  ftrongly  felt  by  every 
young  and  uncorrupted  individual.  When  not  retrained 
by  neceffity,  or  other  powerful  motives,  men  and  women 
would  intermarry  long  before  it  would  be  prudent  in  ci- 
vilized or  artificial  dates  of  fociety.  This  univerfal,  and 
almoft  if  refiftible,  impulfe  of  felection,  is  to  me  the  ftrong- 
eft  argument  in  favour  of  monogamy,  or  the  union  of 
pairs,  among  the  human  fpecies. 

The  fame  impulfe,  or  law  of  Nature,  takes  place  among 
many  other  animals,  as  the  partridge  tribes,  the  fwallow, 

the 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         251 

the  linnet,  and,  in  general,  all  the  fmall  birds.  The  af- 
fiduity,  attention,  mutual  affection,  laborious  vigilance, 
and  ftedfaft  fidelity  of  pairing  animals,  are  truly  admi- 
rable, and,  to  ingenuous  minds,  afford  the  moft  exem- 
plary admonitions  to  virtue  and  conjugal  attachment. 

Befide  this  forcible  impulfe  of  fele&ion  implanted  by 
Nature  in  man,  and  in  every  other  pairing  animal,  fome 
other  fads  deferve  to  be  noticed.  In  all  pairing  animals, 
including,  of  courfe,  the  human  race,  the  males  and  fe- 
males produced  are  nearly  equal.  This  is  a  plain  indica- 
tion that  Nature  deftined  thefe  animals  to  pair,  or  to 
marry.  Injuflice,  jealoufy,  animofity,  and  every  animal 
calamity,  would  enfue,  if  this  order  of  Nature  were  en- 
croached upon  in  creatures  who  are  endowed  with  the 
inftinct  of  fexual  feleclion. 

It  is  not  incurious  to  remark,  that  human  inftitutions 
often  contradicl  the  laws  of  Nature.  The  dunghill-cock 
and  hen,  in  a  natural  ftate,  pair.  In  a  domeftic  ftate, 
however,  the  cock  is  a  jealous  tyrant,  and  the  hen  a  pro- 
ftitute.  But,  even  in  this  unnatural  fociety,  a  feledion 
is  fometimes  to  be  obferved.  The  fame  phenomenon  is 
exhibited  among  mankind,  when  placed  in  certain  fitua- 
tions.  Like  domeftic  poultry,  the  Turks,  and  fome  Afi- 
atic  and  African  nations,  influenced  by  an  accurfed  go- 
vernment, and  by  an  execrable  religion,  rebel  againfl  the 
law  of  love,  and  of  reciprocal  attachment.  In  thefe  coun- 
tries, a  rich  man  not  only  engroffes,  but  imprifons  and 
tortures,  as  many  beautiful  women  as  his  fortune  enables 
him  to  fupport.  Deftitute  of  all  thofe  endearments  which 
arife  from  mental  communication,  from  parental  tender- 
nefs  and  aifeclion,  from  mutual  confidence  and  folace,  he 
is,  while  young,  perpetually  tormented  with  jealous  ap- 
prehenfions.  As  he  advances  in  life,  his  jealoufy  and' 
his  terror  augment.  Though  his  females  are  fcrupuloully 
guarded  from  every  intrufion,  by  fervile  and  mutilated 
wretches,  his  fears  increafe  with  his  years  and  debility, 
till  a  premature  and  comfortlefs  old  age  puts  a  period  to 
his  infignificant  and  liftlefs  exiflence. 

In  general,  it  is  to  be  remarked,  that  all  thofe  fpecies 
of  animals,  whofe  offspring  require,  for  fome  time,  the 

induflry 


352  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

induftry  and  fupport  of  both  parents,  are  endowed  with 
the  inftinct  of  felection,  or  of  pairing.  With  regard  to 
the  feathered  tribes,  pairing  is  almofl  univerfal.  A  dif- 
tinction,  however,  as  to  the  duration  and  circumftances 
of  their  pairing,  is  to  be  obferved.  The  young  of  all  the 
fmall  birds,  as  well  as  of  moft  of  the  larger  kinds,  con- 
tinue for  fome  weeks  in  a  weak  and  helplefs  condition. 
The  mother  is  not,  like  quadrupeds,  provided  with  or- 
gans fitted  to  fecrete  milk ;  of  courfe,  me  is  unable  to 
nourifh  them  out  of  her  own  body.  She  is  therefore  ob- 
liged to  go  abroad  in  queft  of  food  for  them.  But  the 
progeny  are  fo  numerous,  that  all  her  induftry,  if  not 
affifted  by  the  father,  would  be  ineffectual  for  their  fup- 
port and  protection.  In  all  birds  whofe  young  are  in 
this  condition,  the  males  and  females  not  only  pair,  but 
each  of  them  is  endowed  with  the  ftrongeft  parental  af- 
fection. Both  are  equally  anxious  and  induftrious  in 
procuring  food  for  their  mutual  offspring.  This  parental 
care  and  attachment  uniformly  continues  till  the  young 
are  fledged,  and  have  acquired  fufficient  flrength  to  pro- 
vide for  thernfelves.  Eagles,  and  fome  other  birds  of 
prey,  continue  faithfully  in  pairs  for  years,  and  perhaps 
during  life.  Thefe  facts  afford  a  ftrong  argument  in  fa- 
vour of  marriage  among  mankind.  No  animal  remains 
fo  long  in  the  infant  and  helplefs  Mate  as  the  children  of 
raen  ;  and  no  mother  could,  with  her  own  induftry,  pof- 
iibly  fuckle  and  procure  nouriihment  for  a  numerous  fa- 
mily. Here,  as  in  the  feathered  tribes,  the  ailiftance  of 
the  father  becomes  indifpenfabie.  On  this  fubject,  a  cu- 
rious inftinct  merits  attention.  The  male  of  mofl  birds 
not  only  felects  a  female,  but,  with  great  affiduity,  brings 
food  to  her  when  fitting  on  her  eggs,  and  often  relieves 
her,  by  fitting  on  them  himfelf. 

There  are  other  fpecies  of  pairing  birds,  whofe  young, 
ns  ibon  as  they  are  hatched,  are  capable  of  eating  their 
food  \tfeen  prefented  to  them,  and,  of  courfe,  require  lefs 
labour  from  the  parents.  In  thefe  fpecies,  accordingly, 
the  male  pays  no  attention  to  the  progeny,  becaufe  it  is 
unnecerTary ;  but  the  mother  carefully  leads  them  about 
to  places  where  proper  food  is  to  be  had,  protects  them 

from 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         253 

from  injuries,  and  communicates  heat  to  them  by  cover- 
ing them  with  her  wings. 

Quadrupeds,  efpecially  thofe  which  feed  upon  grafs, 
do  not  pair ;  becaufe,  while  the  female  gives  fuck  to  her 
young,  fhe  herfelf  is  feeding.  Befide,  the  young  of  this 
tribe,  very  foon  after  birth,  can  eat  grafs,  and  other  ve- 
getables. The  Count  de  Buifon  remarks,  that  the  roe- 
deer,  though  they  feed  upon  grafs,  are  to  be  excepted 
from  this  rule  ;  for  they  pair,  and  have  annually  but  one 
litter.  Lions,  tigers,  wolves,  and  other  rapacious  qua- 
drupeds, do  not  pair.  The  whole  labour  of  procuring 
food  is  devolved  upon  the  female,  which  often  fhortens  her 
own  life,  as  well  as  that  of  her  offspring.  In  relation  to 
man,  this  is  a  fortunate  circumftance ;  for,  if  beails  of 
prey  paired,  a  dangerous  multiplication  of  thofe  deftruc- 
tive  fpecies  would  be  the  confequence.  But  pairing  is 
effentially  neceflary  to  birds  of  prey  ;  becaufe,  during  the 
procefs  of  incubation,  the  female  would  not  have  time 
fufficient  for  procuring  food ;  which,  in  thefe  animals, 
requires  both  patience  and  addrefs.  Some  quadrupeds, 
particularly  thofe  which  lay  up  provifions  for  the  winter, 
as  the  beaver,  pair.  As  foon  as  the  young  beavers  are 
produced,  the  males  abandon  the  flock  of  provifions  to 
the  females,  and  go  in  quefl  of  food  for  themfelves.  But 
they  by  no  means  relinquifh  their  mates  ;  but  frequently 
return  and  vifit  them  while  they  are  fuckling  their  young. 

If  man,  and  fome  of  the  pairing  animals,  be  excepted, 
the  feafons  of  love  are  limited  to  particular  times  of  the 
year.  Thefe  feafons,  though  various,  are  admirably  adapt- 
ed to  the  nature  and  ceconomy  of  the  different  fpecies. 
In  all  animals  of  this  kind,  the  feafons  of  love,  and  the 
times  of  female  geflation,  are  fo  contrived  by  Nature, 
that  the  offspring,  when  brought  forth,  are  amply  fup- 
plied  with  the  particular  fpecies  of  food  upon  which  they 
principally  live.  Though  the  times  of  geflation  vary  con- 
fiderably  among  fuch  quadrupeds  as  feed  upon  grafg,  the 
refpeclive  females  uniformly  bring  forth  early  in  fummer, 
when  the  grafs  is  tender  and  luxuriant.  The  mare  comes 
in  feafon  in  fummer,  carries  eleven  months,  and  is  deli- 
vered in  the  beginning  of  May.  Sheep  and  goats  come 

in 


THE     PHILOSOPHY 

in  feafon  in  the  end  of  Oftober  or  beginning  of  Novem- 
ber. They  carry  five  months,  and  produce  when  the 
grafs  begins  to  fpring.  It  is  worthy  of  obfervation,  that, 
though  the  times  of  geftation  in  the  fame  fpecies,  and  in 
all  latitudes,  never  alter,  yet  the  feafons  of  love,  and 
times  of  delivery,  vary  with  the  climate.  In  Italy,  fheep 
come  in  feafon  in  the  months  of  June  or  July.  The  fe- 
males, as  ufual,  carry  five  months,  and  bring  forth  in 
November  or  December,  the  very  period  when  grafs,  in 
that  climate,  is  in  its  bed  ftate  for  paflure  ;  for,  in  April, 
it  is  burnt  up,  and  fheep  have  nothing  to  browfe  upon 
but  fhrubs.  The  rutting  feafon  of  the  flag  is  in  the  end 
of  September  and  beginning  of  October,  and  the  female 
brings  forth  in  May  or  the  beginning  of  June.  Thefe 
animals  inhabit  the  higheft  mountains  of  Scotland,  where 
the  grafs,  of  courfe,  does  not  begin  to  fpring  fo  early  as 
in  the  lower  parts  of  that  country.  Beavers  come  in  fea- 
fon about  the  end  of  autumn,  and  bring  forth  in  Janua- 
ry, when  their  ftore-houfes  are  full  of  provifions.  The 
young  of  pairing  birds  are  produced  in  the  fpring,  when 
the  weather  begins  to  be  comfortably  warm,  and  their 
natural  food  abounds.  In  a  word,  the  bringing  forth,  or 
hatching,  of  all  animals.,  not -excluding  the  infect  tribes, 
uniformly  takes  place  at  thofe  feafons  of  the  year  when 
the  nature  of  the  weather,  and  the  food  peculiar  to  the 
fpecies,  are  beft  adapted  to  the  conflitution  of  their  oft- 
fpring.  Caterpillars  of  every  kind  are  never  hatched  till 
the  various  plants  on  which  they  feed,  though  they  grow 
in  different  months,  have  put  forth  their  leaves. 

We  (hall  conclude  this  fubjecl,  by  giving  a  Table  of 
the  Relative  Fecundity,  &c.  of  Animals,  which,  in  a 
fhort  compafs,  folves  a  number  of  queftions  with  regard 
to  the  natural  hiftory  of  quadrupeds.  It  is  taken  from 
the  eighth  volume  of  the  Tranilation  of  Buffon,  to  whofe 
authority  moft  readers  will  be  inclined  to  give  great 
weight. 


TABLE 


OF-  NATURAL    HISTORY.         255 


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OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         257 


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258  THE     PHILOSOPHY 


CHAPTER     XII. 

Of  the  Transformation  of  Animals. 


transformation  of  caterpillars,  and  of  different 
A  kinds  of  worms,  into  winged  infects,  has  long  ex- 
cited the  attention,  as  well  as  the  admiration  of  mankind. 
But  the  truth  is,  that  every  animal,  without  exception, 
undergoes  changes  in  ftruclure,  mode  of  exiftence,  and 
external  appearances.  Mankind,  from  their  embryo- 
iiate,  to  their  final  difiblution,  affume  many  different 
forms.  Some  weeks  after  conception,  the  rudiments  of 
a  human  being  are  to  be  perceived.  As  pregnancy  ad- 
vances, the  approaches  to  the  perfect  figure  become  gra- 
dually more  diflinguimable,  till  the  period  of  birth. 
While  in  the  foetus -ft  ate,  the  head  is  difproportionally 
large,  when  compared  with  the  other  parts  of  the  body ; 
npurimment  is  conveyed  to  it  by  very  different  channels  ; 
and  refpiration  is  not  neceffary,  I  ecaufe  the  circulation 
of  the  blood  is  not  carried  on  in  the  fame  manner  as 
after  birth.  Even  after  birth,  the  form,  fymmetry,  and 
organs  of  the  animal  are  by  no  means  complete.  The 
head  continues  for  fome  time  to  be  difproportionally  large; 
the  hands  and  feet  are  not  properly  maped ;  the  legs  are 
crooked  ;  the  hair  on  the  h'ead  is  fhort  and  fcanty  ;  no 
teeth  as  yet  appear  ;  and  there  is  not  a  veftige  of  a  beard. 
In  a  few  months,  however,  the  fymmetry  of  all  the  parts 
is  evidently  improved,  and  the  teeth  begin  to  fhoot.  The 
growth  of  the  whole  body,  as  well  as  the  ftrength  and 
beauty  of'  its  form,  gradually  advance  to  perfection  till 
the  fixth  or  feventh  year,  when  another  change  takes 
place.  At  this  period,  the  firit  fet  of  teeth  are  fried,  and 
are  replaced  by  new  ones.  From  boyhood  to  puberty, 
the  fize  of  the  body,  and  of  its  different  members,  in- 

creafc 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.        259 

•creafe.  When  the  age  of  puberty  arrives,  fever al  im- 
portant changes  are  produced  in  the  fyftem  of  both  maks 
and  females.  The  beard  now  makes  its  appearance  ;  the 
dimenfions  of  the  body,  in  mod  individuals,  are  fuddenly 
augmented ;  and  both  fexes  become  capable  of  multiply- 
ing the  fpecies.  From  this  period,  to  the  age  of  twenty?, 
five  or  thirty,  the  mufcles  fwell,  their  interftices  are  filled 
with  fat,  the  parts  bear  a  proper  proportion  to  each  other, 
and  man  may  now  be  confidered  as  a  perfect  animal.  In 
this  ftate  of  bodily  perfection  and  vigour,  he  generally 
remains  till  he  reaches  his  fiftieth  year.  Then  a  new  but 
a  gradual  change  begins  to  appear.  From  the  fiftieth  year 
to  the  age  of  feventy  or  eighty,  the  powers  of  the  body 
decline  in  their  ftrength  and  activity.  The  mufcles  lofe 
their  fpring  and  their  force.  The  vigour  of  manhood  is 
no  longer  felt,  and  the  withered  decrepitude  of  old  age 
is  fucceeded  by  death,  its  unavoidable  confequence. 

The  mind  of  man  undergoes  changes  as  well  as  his 
body.  The  tafte,  the  appetites,  and  the  difpofitions,  are 
in  perpetual  fluctuation.  How  different  is  the  tafte  of  a 
child  from  that  of  a  man  ?  Fond  of  gewgaws  and  of  tri- 
fling amufements,  children  frolic  away  their  time  without 
much  thought » or  reflection.  When  advancing  toward 
puberty,  their  difpofitions  and  defires  fufler  a  gradual 
mutation.  New  inflirj&s  are  unfolded,  and  a  fenfe  of 
propriety  begins  to  be  perceived.  They  defpife  their 
former  occupations  arid  amufements ;  and  different  fpe- 
cies of  objects  folicit  and  obtain  their  attention.  Their 
powers  of  reflection  are  now  considerably  augmented  ; 
and  both  fexes  acquire  a  modefty  and  a  ihynefs  with  re- 
gard to  each  other.  This  aukward,  but  natural  bafhful- 
nefs,  by  the  intercourfe  of  fociety,  as  well  as  by  the 
impulfes  of  Nature,  vanifhes  foon  after  puberty,  when 
the  ftate  of  manhood  and  of  gallantry  commences.  From 
this  period  to  the  age  of  twenty-five  or  thirty,  men's 
minds  aiiume  a  bold,  enterpriiing,  and  active  tone.  They 
engage  in  the  bufmefs  of  life,  look  forward  to  futurity, 
and  have  a  defire  of  marrying  and  of  eftablifhing  families. 
All  the  focial  appetites  are  in  vigour  ;  folid  and  manly, 
friendfhips  are  formed ;  and  man  goes  on  for  feme  time 

to 


160  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

to  enjoy  every  kind  of  happinefs  which  his  nature  is  ca- 
pable of  affording.  I  wifh  the  next  change1  had  no  exift- 
ence.  At  fifty  or  fixty,  the  mental  powers,  in  general, 
like  thofe  of  the  body,  begin  to  decline,  till  feeble  and 
tremulous  old  age  arrives,  and  death  clofes  the  mutable 
fcene  of  human  life. 

With  regard  to  quadrupeds,  both  before  and  after  birth, 
they  undergo  fimilar,  and  many  of  them  greater,  changes 
of  form  than  thofe  of  the  human  fpecies.  Their  mental 
powers,  likewife,  their  difpofitions  and  manners,  as  well 
as  the  objects  of  their  attention,  vary  according  to  the 
different  ftages  of  their  exiftence.  Many  of  them  come 
into  the  world  blind,  and  continue  for  fome  time  before 
they  receive  the  fenfe  of  feeing.  How  many  changes  are 
exhibited  in  the  dog  from  birth  till  he  becomes  a  perfect 
animal,  till  all  his  members  are  completely  formed,  and 
all  his  inflincls  are  unfolded  and  improved  by  experience 
and  education  ?  The  deer-kind  acquire  not  their  magni- 
ficent and  beautiful  horns  before  the  age  of  puberty ;  and 
even  thefe  are  annually  caft  off  and  renewed.  Similar 
changes  take  place  in  quadrupeds  of  every  denomination  ; 
with  examples  of  which  every  man's  experience  and  re- 
collection will  readily  fupply  him ;  and,  therefore,  it  is 
unneceffary  to  be  more  particular. 

Neither  are  birds^  in  their  progrefs  from  birth  to  ma- 
turity, exempted  from  changes.  Like  quadrupeds,  many 
birds  are  blind  for  fome  time  after  they  are  hatched.  In 
this  condition,  how  different  are  their  form  and  appear- 
ances from  thofe  of  the  perfect  animals !  At  firft,  they 
are  covered  with  a  kind  of  down  inftead  of  feathers. 
Even  after  the  feathers  fhoot,  they  are  often  of  a  colour 
different  from  that  which  they  acquire  when  full  grown. 
The  beautifully-variegated  colours  of  the  peacock's  tail 
appear  not  till  he  arrives  at  his  third  year  *.  Birds  that 
have  crefts,  or  wattles,  live  a  confiderable  time  before 
they  acquire  thefe  ornaments,  or  marks  of  diftinclion. 
All  birds  annually  molt,  or  cafl  their  feathers,  in  the  fame 
manner  as  quadrupeds  fhed  their  hair,  the  new  pufhing 
out  the  old. 

Frogs, 

*  Liruiaei  Amccn.  Acad.  vol.  4.  p.  368.     S. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          261 

Frogs,  and  many  other  amphibious  animals,  undergo 
great  changes  in  their  form  and  ftru&ure.  When  it  firft 
efcapes  from  the  egg,  a  frog  appears  in  the  form  of  a 
tadpole,  an  animal  with  a  large  roundifh  head,  and  a 
comprefled  or  flat  tail,  but  totally  deftitute  of  feet  and 
legs.  In  this  ftate  it  remains  a  confiderable  time,  when 
the  two  fore-feet  begin  to  fhoot,  and  have  an  exaft  re- 
femblance  to  the  buds  of  trees.  As  their  growth  advan- 
ces, the  toes  and  legs  are  diftinguifhable.  The  fame 
procefs  goes  on  with  the  hind-legs,  only  they  are  fome- 
what  later  in  making  their  appearance.  During  the 
growth  of  the  legs,  the  blood  being  drawn  into  different 
channels,  the  tail  fuffers  a  gradual  mortification,  till  at 
laft  it  totally  vanifhes,  and  the  tadpole  is  metamorphofed 
into  a  quadruped.  Tadpoles  never  come  out  of  the  wa- 
ter ;  but,  after  their  transformation  into  frogs,  they  be- 
come amphibious,  and  occafionally  frequent  both  land 
and  water. 

The  cniftaceous  tribes,  as  lobfters,  crabs,  &c.  befide  the 
different  appearances  they  affume  while  growing  to  per- 
fection, caft  their  fhells  every  year.  When  this  change 
is  about  to  happen,  they  retire  into  the  crevices  of  rocks, 
or  fhelter  themfelves  below  detached  flones,  with  a  view 
to  conceal  and  defend  their  bodies  from  the  rapacious 
attacks  of  other  fifhes.  After  the  fhells  are  caft,  the  ani- 
mals are  exceedingly  weak  and  defenceiefs.  Inftead  of 
their  natural  defence  of  hard  fhells,  and  ftrong  claws, 
they  are  covered  only  with  a  thin  membrane  or  fkin.  In 
this  ftate  they  become  an  eafy  prey  to  almoft  every  fifh 
that  fwims.  The  fkin,  however,  gradually  thickens  and 
grows  harder,  till  it  acquires  the  ufual  degree  of  firmnefs. 
By  this  time  the  animals  have  refumed  their  former 
ftrength  and  a&ivity  ;  they  come  out  from  their  retire- 
ments, and  go  about  in  queft  of  food. 

Serpents,  and  many  other  reptiles,  caft  their  fkins  an- 
nually. The  beauty  and  luftre  of  their  colours  are  then 
highly  augmented.  .  Before  cafting,  the  old  fkins  have  a 
tarnifhed  and  withered  appearance.  The  old  fkins,  like 
the  firft  fet  of  teeth  in  children,  are  forced  off  by  the 
growth  of  the  new. 

We 


s62  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

We  come  now  to  give  fome  account  of  the  transfor- 
mations of  in/efls9  which  are  both  various  and  wonderful. 
All  winged  infects,  without  exception,  and  many  of  thofe 
which  are  deditute  of  wings,  mud  pals  through  feveral 
changes  before  the  animals  arrive  at  the  perfection  of 
their  natures.  The  appearance,  the  dru&ure,  and  the 
organs  of  a  caterpillar,  of  a  chryfalis,  and  of  a  fly,  are 
fo  different,  that,  to  a  perfon  unacquainted  with  their 
transformations,  an  identical  animal  would  be  confrdefed 
as  three  diftincl  fpecies.  Without  the  aid  of  experience, 
who  could  believe  that  a  butterfly,  adorned  wii.h  four 
beautiful  wings,  furnifhed  with  a  long  fpiral  probofcis  or 
tongue,  indead  of  a  mouth,  and  with  fix  legs,  fnould 
have  proceeded  from  a  difguding,  hairy  caterpillar,  pro- 
vided with  jaws  and  teeth,  and  fourteen  feet  ?  Without 
experience,  who  could  imagine  that  a  long,  white,  fmooth, 
foft  worm,  hid  undei  the  earth,  mould  be  transformed 
into  a  black,  cruftaceous  beetle,  having  wing's  covered 
with  horny  elytra,  or  cafes  ? 

Upon  this  branch  of  the  fubjecl,  we  fliall,  firfii  g*ve 
an  example  or  two  of  the  mod  common  transformations 
of  Infects  ;  and,  fecondly,  defcribe  fome  of  the  more  un- 
common kinds. 

Befide  their  final  metamorphofis  into  flies,  caterpillars 
undergo  feveral  intermediate  changes.  All  caterpillars 
cart  or  change  their  fkins  oftener  or  more  feldom,  accord- 
ing to  the  fpecies.  Malpighius  informs  us,  that  the  filk- 
worm,  previous  to  its  chryfalis  ftate,  cads  its  {kin  four 
times.  The  fird  {kin  is  cad  on  the  loth,  nth,  or  i2th 
day,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  feafon ;  the  fecond 
in  five  or  fix  days  after  ;  the  third  in  five  or  fix  days  more; 
and  the  fourth  and  lad  in  fix  or  feven  days  after  the  third. 
This  changing  of  {kin  is  not  only  common  to  all  cater- 
pillars, but  to  every  infect  whatever.  Not  one  of  them 
arrives  at  perfection  without  cafting  its  {kin  at  lead  once 
or  twice.  The  {kin,  after  it  is  cad,  preferves  fo  entirely 
the  figure  of  the  caterpillar  ift  its  head,  teeth,  legs,  colour, 
hair,  &c.  that  it  is  often  midaken  for  the  animal  itfelf.  A 
day  or  two  before  this  change  happens,  caterpillars  take  no 
food :  They  lofe  their  former  activity,  attach  themfelves 

to 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         26*3 

to  a  particular  place,  and  bend  their  bodies  in  various 
directions,  till  at  laft  they  efcape  from  the  old  (kin,  and 
leave  it  behind  them.  The  inteflinal  canal  of  caterpil- 
lars is  compoled  of  two  principal  tubes,  the  one  inferted 
into  the  other.  The  external  tube  is  compact  and  flefhy  ; 
but  the  internal  one  is  thin  and  tranfparent.  Some  days 
before  caterpillars  change  into  the  chryfalis  flate,  they 
void,  along  with  their  excrement,  the  inner  tube  which 
lined  their  flomach  and  inteflines.  When  about  to  pafs 
into  the  chryfalis  flate,  which  is  a  flate  of  imbecility, 
caterpillars  felect  the  mofl  proper  places  and  modes  of 
concealing  themfelves  from  their  enemies.  Some,  as  the 
filk-worm,  and  many  others,  fpin  filken  webs  or  cods 
round  their  bodies,  which  completely  difguife  the  animal 
form.  Others  leave  the  plants  upon  which  they  formerly 
fed,  and  hide  themfelves  in  little  cells  which  they  make 
in  the  earth.  The  rat-tailed  worm  abandons  the  water 
upon  the  approach  of  its  metamorphofis,  retires  under 
the  earth,  where  it  is  changed  into  a  chryfalis?  and,  after 
a  certain  time,  burfls  from  its  feemingly-inanimate  con- 
dition, and  appears  in  the  form  of  a  winged  infect.  Thus 
the  fame  animals  pafs  the  firft  and  longeft  period  of  their 
exigence  in  the  water,  another  under  the  earth,  and  the 
third  and  laft  in  the  air.  Some  caterpillars,  when  about 
to  change  into  a  chryfalis  flate,  cover  their  bodies  with  a 
mixture  of  earth  and  of  filk,  and  conceal  themfelves  in 
the  loofe  foil.  Others  inCJiiil  themfelves  with  a  filky  or 
glutinous  matter,  which  they  pufh  out  from  their  mouths, 
without  fpinning  it  into  threads.  Others  retire  into  the 
holes  of  walls  or  of  decayed  trees.  Others  fufpend  them- 
felves to  the  twigs  of  trees,  or  to  other  elevated  bodies, 
with  their  heads  undermoft.  Some  attach  themfelves  to 
walls,  with  their  heads  higher  than  their  bodies,  but  in 
various  inclinations ;  and  others  choofe  a  horizontal  po- 
fition.  Some  fix  themfelves  by  a  gluten,  and  fpin  a  rope 
round  their  middle  to  prevent  them  from  falling.  Thofe 
which  feed  upon  trees  attach  themfelves  to  the  branches, 
inflead  of  the  leaves,  which  are  lefs  durable,  and  fubject 
to  a  greater  variety  of  accidents.  The  colours  of  the 
caterpillars  give  no  idea  of  thofe  of  the  future  flies. 

In 


264  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

In  general,  the  figure  of  chryfalids  approaches  to  that 
of  a  cone,  efpecially  in  their  pofterior  part.  When  un- 
der this  form,  the  infect  feems  to  have  neither  legs  nor 
wings.  It  is  incapable  either  of  walking  or  of  crawling. 
It  takes  no  nourifhment,  becaufe  it  has  no  organs  fuited 
to  that  purpofe ;  yet,  in  fome  fpecies,  life  is  continued 
for  feveral  months  before  their  laft  metamorphofis  takes 
place.  In  a  word,  it  feems  to  be  a  lifelefs  mafs.  But, 
upon  a  more  attentive  obfervation,  it  poflefles  the  power 
of  bending  upwards  and  downwards  the  pofterior  part  of 
its  body.  The  ikin,  or  exterior  covering,  of  thofe  which 
do  not  fpin  cods,  feems  to  be  of  a  cartilaginous  nature. 
It  is  commonly  fmooth  and  Ihining.  In  fome  fpecies, 
however,  the  ikin  of  the  chryfalis  is  more  or  lefs  covered 
with  hair,  and  other  rugofities.  Though  chryfalids  dif- 
fer both  in  figure  and  colour,  their  appearances  are  by 
no  means  fo  various  as  thofe  of  the  caterpillars  from  which 
they  are  produced.  The  colour  of  fome  chryfalids  is 
that  of  pure  gold,  from  which  circumftance  the  whole 
have  received  their  denomination.  For  the  fame  reafon 
they  are  called  aurelia  in  Latin.  Some  are  brown,  others 
green  ;  and,  indeed,  they  are  to  be  found  of  almoft  every 
colour  and  {hade. 

The  life  of  winged  infects  confifts  of  three  principal 
periods,  which  prefent  very  different  fcenes  to  the  ftudent 
of  Nature.  In  the  firft  period,  the  infect  appears  under 
the  form  of  a  worm,  or  caterpillar.  Its  body  is  long,  cy- 
lindrical, and  confifts  of  a  fucceflion  of  rings,  which  are 
generally  membranous,  and  encafed  within  each  other. 
By  the  aid  of  its  rings,  or  of  crotchets,  or  of  feveral  pairs 
of  legs,  it  crawls  about  in  queft  of  food  ;  and  its  move- 
ments are,  in  fome  fpecies,  remarkably  quick.  Its  head 
is  armed  with  teeth,  or  pincers,  by  which  it  eats  the  leaves 
of  plants  or  other  kinds  of  food.  In  this  ftate,  it  is  abfo- 
lutely  deprived  of  fex,  and,  confequently,  of  the  power 
of  multiplication.  Its  blood  moves  from  the  tail  toward 
the  head.  It  refpires  either  by  ftigmata  or  fmall  apertures 
placed  on  each  fide  of  its  body,  or  by  one  or  feveral  tubes 
iituated  on  its  pofterior  part,  which  have  the  refemblance 
of  fo  many  tails.  la  the  fecond  period,  the  infect  appears 

under 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  265 

under  the  form  of  a  nymph,  or  that  of  a  chryfalis.  When 
an  infect,  after  throwing  off  the  {kin  of  the  caterpillar, 
exhibits  all  its  external  parts,  only  covered  with  foft  and 
tranfparent  membranes,  it  is  called  a  nymph.  But,  when 
to  thefe  membranes  is  added  a  common  and  cruftaceous 
covering,  it  receives  the  name  of  a  chryfalis.  While  in 
the  ftate  of  a  nymph,  or  that  of  a  chryfalis,  infects,  in 
general,  are  totally  inactive,  and  feem  not  to  polfefs  any 
powers  of  life.  Sunk  into  a  kind  of  deep  fleep,  they  are 
little  affe&ed  with  external  objects.  They  can  make  no 
ufe  of  their  eyes,  their  mouth,  or  any  of  their  members ; 
for  they  are  all  imprifoned  by  coverings  more  or  lefs  ftrong. 
No  cares  occupy  their  attention.  Deprived  of  the  faculty 
of  motion,  they  remain  fixed  in  thofe  fituations  which 
they  have  chofen  for  their  temporary  abode,  or  where 
chance  has  placed  them,  till  their  final  metamorphofis  into 
flies.  Some  of  them,  However,  are  capable  of  changing 
place  ;  but  their  movements  are  flow  and  painful.  Their 
blood  circulates,  but  in  a  contrary  direction  from  what 
takes  place  in  the  caterpillar  (late;  for  it  proceeds  front  the 
head  toward  the  tail.  Refpiration  continues  to  go  on, 
but  the  organs  are  differently  fituated.  In  the  caterpillar, 
the  principal  organs  of  refpiration  were  placed  at  the  pof- 
terior  part  of  the  body ;  but  now  thefe  fame  organs  are 
to  be  found  at  the  anterior  part  of  the  animal.  In  the 
third  period,  the  infect  has  acquired  that  perfect  organi- 
zation which  correfponds  to  the  rank  it  is  to  hold  in  the 
fcale  of  animation.  The  bonds  of  the  nymph,  or  of  the 
chryfalis,  are  now  burli  afunder,  and  the  infect  commences 
a  new  mode  of  exiftence.  All  its  members,  formerly  foft, 
inactive,  and  folded  up  in  an  envelope,  are  expanded, 
Strengthened,  and  expofed  to  obfervation.  Under  the 
form  of  a  worm,  or  caterpillar,  it  crawled  ;  under  thofe 
of  a  nymph,  or  chryfalis,  its  power  of  motion  was  almoft 
annihilated ;  under  the  lad  form,  it  is  furnifhed  with  fix 
fpringy  legs,  and  two  or  four  wings,  with  which  it  is  en- 
abled to  fly  through  the  air.  Inftead  of  teeth,  or  pincers, 
with  which  it  divided  a  grofs  aliment,  it  has  now  a  trunk, 
by  which  it  extracts  the  refined  juices  of  the  moll:  delicate 
flowers.  Inflead  of  a  few  fmooth  eves  which  it  poffeffed 

L  1  ia 


266  THEPHILOS  OPH  Y 

in  the  worm  or  caterpillar  ftate,  the  new  infect  is  furnifh- 
ed  v/ith  both  fmooth  and  convex  eyes,  to  the  number  of 
feveral  thoufands. 

The  internal  parts  of  the  infect  have  likewife  undergone 
as  many  changes  as  the  external.  The  texture,  the  pro- 
portions, and  the  number  of  the  vifcera,  are  greatly  altered. 
Some  have  acquired  an  additional  degree  of  confidence ; 
others,  on  the  contrary,  are  rendered  finer  and  more  de- 
licate. Some  receive  a  new  form,  and  others  arc  entirely 
annihilated.  Laftly,  fome  organs  in  the  perfect  infect, 
which  feemed  formerly  to  have  no  exiflence,  are  unfold- 
ed, and  become  vifible.  The  mod  important  of  this  laft 
kind  are  the  organs  of  generation.  The  caterpillar,  the 
nymph,  and  the  chryfalis,  were  of  no  fex.  But,  after 
transformation,  both  fexes  are  diflinguifhable,  and  the 
animals  are  capable  of  multiplying  their  fpecies. 

We  mail  now  give  fome  examples  of  transformations 
which  deviate  from  the  common  mode. 

Some  infects  hold  a  middle  rank  between  thofe  which 
preferve  their  original  figure  during  life,  and  thofe  that 
fuffer  transformations.  Their  exiflence  is  divided  into 
two  periods  only.  They  walk  in  the  firfl,  and  fly  in  the 
fecond.  Thus  their  only  metamorphofis  confifts  of  the 
addition  of  wings,  the  growth  and  expanfion  of  which 
are  performed  without  any  confiderable  alteration  in  the 
figure  of  their  bodies. 

There  is  not  a  law  eftablifhed  among  organized  bodies 
which  feems  to  be  fo  univerfal,  as  that  all  of  them  grow, 
or  augment  in  fize,  after  birth,  till  they  arrive  at  matu- 
rity. If  a  hen  were  to  bring  forth  an  egg  as  large  as  her 
own  body,  and  if  this  egg,  when  hatched,  were  to  pro- 
duce a  bird  of  equal  dimenfions  with  either  of  the  patents, 
it  would  be  coiifidered  as  a  miracle.  But  the  fpider-jly^ 
fo  denominated  from  its  figure,  affords  an  example  of  a 
fimilar  prodigy.  This  fly  actually  lays  an  egg,  from  which 
a  new  fly  is  hatched  that  is  as  large  and  as  perfect  as  its 
mother.  This  egg  is  roundifh,  is  at  firfl  white,  and  af- 
terwards aflumes  a  fhining  black  colour.  Upon  a  more 
accurate  examination,  however,  this  production  was 
found  to  be  an  egg  only  in  appearance.  When  the  en- 
velope 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         267 

velope  is  removed,  inftead  of  a  gelatinous  fubftance,  the 
new  infect,  furnifhed  with  all  its  members,  is  difcoverecL 
But  this  difcovery  does  not  render  the  fact  the  lefs  won- 
derful. All  winged  infects  undergo  their  different  tranf- 
formations  after  being  expelled  from  the  bodies  of  their 
mothers,,  and  receive  great  augmentations  of  fize  before 
their  metamorphofis  into  the  nymph  or  chryfalis  flate, 
after  which  their  growth  flops.  But  the  fpider-fly  affords 
an  inflance  of  an  infect  transformed  in  the  belly  of  its 
mother,  and  which  grows  no  more  after  it  efcapes  from 
its  envelope.  This  fact  is  fully  authenticated  by  Reau- 
mur*, Bonne  tf,  and  other  naturalifts. 

The  worm  from  which  the  tipula  or  crane-fly  is  pro- 
duced is  perfectly  fmooth.  Immediately  before  its  firfl 
transformation  it  retires  under  ground.  After  this  me- 
tamorphofis, the  furface  of  the  nymph  is  furnifhed  with 
a  number  of  prickles.  By  means  of  thefe  prickles,  the 
nymph,  when  about  to  be  transformed  into  a  fly,  raifes 
itfelf  in  its  hole  till  the  chefl  of  the  infect  is  above  ground. 
The  fly  then  burfls  its  prifon,  mounts  into  the  air,  and 
leaves  its  former  covering  behind  in  the  earth. 

Many  fpecies  of  flies  depolit  their  eggs  in  the  leaves 
and  different  parts  of  plants.  Soon  after  the  egg  is  in- 
ferted  into  the  leaf,  a  fmall  tubercle  begins  to  appear, 
which  gradually  increafes  in  magnitude  till  the  animal  is 
hatched,  and  has  paffed  through  its  different  transforma- 
tions. Thefe  tubercles  are  known  by  the  name  of  gM9 
and  are  very  different  in  their  form,  texture,  colour,  and 
fize.  Galls  of  every  kind,  however,  derive  their  origin 
from  the  flings  of  infects,  which  generally  belong  to  th^ 
clafs  of  flies.  The  female  fly,  by  means  of  her  fling, 
makes  incifions  in  the  leaves  or  branches  of  a  tree,  and 
in  each  incifion  me  lays  an  egg.  This  egg  is  at  fird  ex- 
tremely minute  ;  but  it  foon  acquires  a  confiderabU  bulk, 
and  the  gall  has  arrived  at  its  full  fize  before  the  worm 
is  hatched.  This  gall  feems  to  be  analogous  to  the  mem- 
branes which  invefl  a  foetus,  and  expand  in  all  direction? 
in  proportion  to  its  growth.  That  the  eggs  of  oviparous 

animals 

*  Reaumur,  vol.  12.  p.  412,  edit.  I2mo.     S. 

+  Oeuvres  de  Bonnet,  vol.  4.  p.  28.  edit.  8vo.     S. 


268  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

animals  grow  while  in  the  ovarium  is  imiverfally  known  ; 
but  it  is  fingular  that  the  eggs  of  gall-flies  fhould  grow 
after  being  Separated  from  the  body  of  the  mother.  Thefe 
eggs  muft  undoubtedly  be  furnifned  with  external  veffels, 
or  a  kind  of  roots,  by  which  they  extract  juices  from 
the  internal  cavity  of  the  gall.  Malpighius  afcribes  the 
origiu  of  galls  to  a  corrofive  liquor  introduced  by  the  fly 
into  the  wound.  But  Reaumur,  to  account  for  the  growth 
of  a  gall,  thinks  it  unnecefTary  to  have  recourfe  to  any 
fuppofed  poifonous  fluids,  and  attributes  it  to  the  fuper- 
abundant  nutricipus  juices  derived  to  that  particular  part 
by  the  continual  action  of  the  abforbent  veflels  of  the 
egg,  joined  to  its  heat,  which  may  be  compared  to  a  little 
lire  placed  in  the  center  of  the  tumour. 

Whether  thefe  caufes  are  fufficient  to  explain  the  growth 
of  galls,  we  mall  fubmit  to  the  judgment  of  the  reader. 
But,  that  the  eggs  depofited  by  the  flies  augment  in  fize  ; 
that  worms  proceed  from  them ;  that  thefe  worms  are 
nourifhed,  and  live  a  certain  time  imprifoned  in  the  galls  ; 
that  they  are  there  transformed  into  nymphs  or  chryfa- 
lids ;  and,,  laftly,  that  they  are  metamorphofed  into  wingr 
ed  infects,  which,  by  gnawing  an  aperture  through  the 
gall,  take  their  flight  in  the  air  ;  are  known  and  incon- 
teflible  facts,  of  the  truth  of  which  every  man  may  eafily 
fatisfy  himfelf.  Examine  the  common  oak-galls,  or  thole 
of  any  other  tree  ;  if  any  of  them  happen  to  have  no 
aperture,  cut  them  gently  open,  and  you  are  certain  to 
find  an  egg,  a  worm,  a  chryfalis,  or  a  fly :  But  in  fuch 
as  are  perforated  by  a  cylindrical  hole,  not  a  veftige  of 
an  animal  is  difcoverable.  The  galls  which  make  an  in^ 
gredient  in  the  compofition  of  ink  are  thick,  and  their 
texture  is  very  flrong  and  compact :  That  the  fmall  ani- 
mals they  contain  fhould  be  able  to  pierce  through  fuch 
a  rigid  fubftance  is  truly  wonderful. 

In  the  general  order  of  Nature  among  oviparous  ani- 
mals, each  egg  includes  one  embryo  only.  A  fingular 
fpecies  of  eggs,  however,  difcovered  by  the  celebrated 
Mr.  Folks,  late  Prefident  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London, 
muft  be  excepted.  He  found  great  numbers  of  them  in 
^he  mud  of  fmall  rivulets,  In  uze  they  equalled  the  head 

of 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         269 

of  an  ordinary  pin.  They  were  of  a  brown  colour,  and 
their  furface  was  cruftaceous,  through  which,  by  employ- 
ing the  microfcope,  feveral  living  worms  were  diftinctly 
perceptible.  By  dexteroufly  breaking  the  fhell,  he  dif- 
lodged  them ;  and  he  found  with  furprife,  that  eight  or 
nine  worms  were  contained  in,  and  proceeded  from,  the 
fame  egg.  They  were  all  wrell  formed,  and  moved  about 
with  great  agility.  Each  of  them  was  inclofed  in  an  in- 
dividual membranous  covering,  which  was  extremely  thin 
and  tranfparent.  It  were  to  be  wifhed  that  the  transfor- 
mations of  thefe  extraordinary  animals  had  been  traced. 

Some  caterpillars,  when  about  to  transform,  make  a 
belt  pafs  round  their  bodies.  This  belt  is  compofed  of 
an  aflemblage  of  filken  threads  fpun  by  themfelves,  the 
ends  of  which  they  pafte  to  the  twigs  of  bufhes,  or  other 
places  where  they  choofe  to  attach  their  bodies.  They 
likewife  fix  their  hind  legs  in  a  tuft  of  filk.  After  tranf- 
formation,  the  chryfalids  remain  fixed  in  the  fame  man- 
ner as  before  their  metamorphofis.  The  belt  is  loofe, 
and  allows  the  chryfalis  to  perform  its  flow  and  feeble 
movements. 

The  whole  moth-kind,  as  well  as  the  filk-worm,  imme- 
diately before  their  transformation  into  the  chryfalis  flate, 
cover  their  bodies  with  a  cod  or  clue  of  filk,  though  the 
nature  of  the  filk,  and  their  mode  of  fpinning,  are  very 
different.  The  cods  of  the  filk-worm  are  compofed  of 
pure  filk.  Their  figure  is  generally  oval,  which  necefla- 
rily  refults  from  that  of  the  animal's  body  upon  which 
they  are  moulded.  When  fpinning,  they  twiil  their  bo- 
dies into  the  form  of  an  S.  The  cod  is  produced  by 
numberlefs  circumvolutions  and  zigzags  of  the  fame 
thread.  The  filk  is  fpun  by  an  instrument  fituated  near 
the  mouth  of  the  infect.  The  filky  matter,  before  it  is 
manufa&ured  by  the  fpinning  inftrument,  appears  under 
the  form  of  a  gum  almoft  liquid,  which  is  contained  in 
two  large  refervoirs  contorted  like  the  inteflines  of  larger 
animals,  and  which  terminate  at  the  extremity  by  two 
parallel  and  flender  conduits.  Each  conduit  furnifhes 
matter  for  one  thread.  The  fpinning  inftrument,  as  is 
evident  when  viewed  by  the  microfcope,  unites  the  two 

threads 


270  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

threads  into  one.  Thus  a  thread  of  filk,  which  has  the 
appearance  of  being  fmgle,  is  in  reality  double,  and  fpun 
with  great  dexterity.  Some  writers,  who  delight  in  the 
marvellous,  afcribe  forefight  to  the  filk-worm  in  fpinning 
its  cod.  The  filk-worm,  it  muft  be  acknowledged,  ads 
as  if  it  forefaw  the  approaching  event.  But  the  truth  is, 
that,  when  the  animal  has  acquired  its  full  growth,  its  re- 
fervoirs  of  filk  are  completely  filled.  It  then  feems  to  be 
flrongly  flimulated  to  evacuate  this  glutinous  matter.  Its 
different  movements  and  attitudes,  while  difcharging  the 
filk,  produce  thofe  oval  bundles  which  clothe  and  orna- 
ment vaft  numbers  of  the  human  fpecies. 

Another  fpecies  of  caterpillar  conftrufts  its  cod  in  the 
form  of  a  boat  with  the  keel  uppermoft ;  but  it  confifts 
not  entirely  of  pure  filk.  The  animal,  with  its  teeth,  de- 
taches fmall  triangular  pieces  of  bark  from  a  bufh  or  a 
tree.  Thefe  pieces  of  bark  it  paftes  upon  its  body  by 
means  of  a  glutinous  or  filky  fub fiance,  and  they  confti- 
tute  a  principal  part  of  its  cod. 

Another  fpecies  works  alfo  in  wood,  though  not  with 
equal  art  as  the  former.  Its  cod  is  compofed  entirely  of 
fmall  irregular  fragments  of  dried  wood.  Thefe  frag- 
ments the  animal  has  the  addrefs  to  unite  together,  and 
to  form  of  them  a  kind  of  box  which  covers  and  defends 
its  whole  body.  It  accomplices  this  purpofe  by  moif- 
tening,  for  fome  moments,  the  pieces  of  wood  in  its  mouth, 
and  then  attaches  them  to  each  other  by  a  glutinous  fub- 
flance.  Of  this  mixture  the  caterpillar  forms  a  cod,  the 
folidity  of  which  is  nearly  equal  to  that  of  wood. 

The  moft  folitary  of  all  infects  are  thofe  who  live  in 
the  internal  parts  of  fruits.  Many  of  them  undergo  their 
metamorphofis  in  the  fruit  itfelf,  which  affords  them  both 
nourifhment  and  a  fafe  retreat.  They  dig  cavities  in  the 
fruit,  which  fome  of  them  either  line  with  filk,  or  fpin 
cods.  Others  leave  the  fruit,  and  retire  to  be  transform- 
ed in  the  earth. 

The  metamorphofis  of  infects  has  been  regarded  as  a 
fudden  operation,  becaufe  they  often  burft  their  fhell  or  fil- 
ky covering  quickly,  and  immediately  appear  furnimed 
with  wings.  But,  by  more  attentive  obfervation,  it  has  been 

difcovered, 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         271 

tiifcovered  that  the  transformation  of  caterpillars  is  a 
gradual  procefs  from  the  moment  the  animals  are  hatched 
till  they  arrive  at  a  (late  of  perfection.  Why,  it  may  be 
afked,  do  caterpillars  fo  frequently  caft  their  Ikins  ?  The 
new  fkin,  and  other  organs,  were  lodged  under  the  old 
ones,  as  in  fo  many  tubes  or  cafes,  and  the  animal  retires 
from  thefe  cafes,  becaufe  they  have  become  too  ftrait. 
The  reality  of  thefe  encafements  has  been  demonftrated 
by  a  fimple  experiment.  When  about  to  moult  or  caft  its 
{kin,  if  the  foremoft  legs  of  a  caterpillar  are  cut  off,  the 
animal  comes  out  of  the  old  Ikin  deprived  of  thefe  legs. 
From  this  fad,  Reaumur  conjectured,  that  the  chryfalis 
might  be  thus  encafed,  and  concealed  under  the  laft  fkin 
of  the  caterpillar.  He  difcovered  that  the  chryfalis,  or 
rather  the  butterfly  itfelf,  was  inclofed  in  the  body  of  the 
caterpillar.  The  probofcis,  the  antennas,  the  limbs,  and 
the  wings,  of  the  fly  are  fo  nicely  folded  up,  that  they 
occupy  a  fmall  fpace  only  under  the  two  firft  rings  of  the 
caterpillar.  In  the  firft  fix  limbs  of  the  caterpillar  are  en- 
cafed the  fix  limbs  of  the  butterfly.  Even  the  eggs  of  the 
butterfly  have  been  difcovered  in  the  caterpillar  long  be- 
fore its  transformation. 

From  thefe  facts  it  appears,  that  the  transformation  of 
infects  is  only  the  throwing  off  external  and  temporary  co- 
verings, and  not  an  alteration  of  the  original  form.  Ca- 
terpillars may  be  confidered  as  analogous  to  the  fcetufes  of 
men  and  of  quadrupeds.  They  live  and  receive  nourim- 
ment  in  envelopes  till  they  acquire  fuch  a  degree  of  per- 
fection as  enables  them  to  fupport  the  fituation  to  which 
they  are  ultimately  deftined  by  Nature. 

One  would  not  readily  believe  that  the  excrements  of  a 
butterfly  (hould  be  capable  of  exciting  confirmation  in 
the  minds  of  the  people.  But  this  event  has  frequently 
happened  in  different  places  and  nations.  Among  many 
other  prodigies  which  have  terrified  nations,  Jhowers  of 
blood  have  been  enumerated  by  hiftorians.  Thefe  {bowers 
of  blood  were  fuppofed  to  portend  great  and  calamitous 
events,  as  wars,  the  deftrudion  of  cities,  and  the  over- 
throw of  empires.  About  the  beginning  of  July,  in  the 
year  1608,  one  of  thefe  pretended  fhowers  of  blood  fell 

in 


272  T  H  E    P  H  I  L  O  S  O  P  H  Y 

in  the  fuburbs  of  Aix,  and  for  feveral  miles  round.  This 
fuppofed  fhower  of  blood,  M.  de  Reaumur  remarks, 
would  probably  have  been  tranfmitted  to  us  as  a  great  and 
a  real  prodigy,  if  Aix  had  not  then  been  poflefled  of  a 
philofopher,  who,  amidft  other  fpecies  of  knowledge,  did 
not  neglect  the  operations  and  ceconomy  of  infects.  This 
philofopher  was  M.  de  Peirefc,' whofe  life  is  written  by 
Gafiendi.  This  life  contains  a  number  of  curious  fads 
and  obfervations.  Among  others,  M.  de  Peirefc  difco- 
vered  the  caufe  of  the  pretended  fhower  of  blood  at  Aix, 
which  had  created  fo  general  an  alarm.  About  the  be- 
ginning of  July,  the  walls  of  a  church-yard  adjacent  to 
the  city,  and  particularly  the  walls  of  the  fmall  villages 
in  the  neighbourhood,  were  obferved  to  be  fpotted  with 
large  drops  of  a  blood-coloured  liquid.  The  people,  as 
well  as  fome  theologians,  confidered  thofe  drops  as  the 
operation  of  forcerers,  or  of  the  Devil  himfelf.  M.  de 
Peirefc,  about  that  time,  had  picked  up  a  large  and  beau- 
tiful chryfalis,  which  he  laid  in  a  box.  Immediately  after 
its  transformation  into  the  butterfly  ftate,  M.  de  Peirefc 
remarked,  that  it  had  left  a  drop  of  blood-coloured  li- 
quor on  the  bottom  of  the  box,  and  that  this  drop,  or 
Itain,  was  as  large  as  a  French  fou*  The  red  ftains  on 
the  walls,  on  flones  near  the  highways,  and  in  the  fields, 
were  found  to  be  perfectly  fimilar  to  that  on  the  bottom 
of  M.  de  Peirefc's  box.  He  now  no  longer  hefitated  to 
pronounce,  that  all  thofe  blood-coloured  flains,  wherever 
they  appeared,  proceeded  from  the  fame  caufe.  The  pro- 
digious number  of  butterflies  which  he,  at  the  fame  time, 
faw  flying  in  the  air,  confirmed  his  original  idea.  He 
likewifc  obferved,  that  the  drops  of  the  miraculous  rain 
were  never  found  in  the  middle  of  the  city  j  that  they  ap- 
peared only  in  places  bordering  upon  the  country ;  and 
rhat  they  never  fell  upon  the  tops  of  houfes,  or  upon  walls 
more  elevated  than  the  height  to  which  butterflies  gene- 
rally rife.  What  M.  de  Peirefc  faw  himfelf,  he  fhowed  to 
many  perfons  of  knowledge,  or  of  curiofity,  and  efla- 
blifhed  it  as  an  inconteftible  fact,  that  the  pretended  drops 
of  blood  were,  in  reality,  drops  of  a  red  liquor  depofited 
bv  butterflies. 

To 


i 

OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         273 

To  -the  fame  caufe  M,  de  Peirefc  attributes  fome  other 
ihowers  of  blood  related  by  hiitorians ;  and  it  is  worthy 
of  remark,  that  all  of  them  are  faid  to  have  happened  in. 
the  warm  feafons  of  the  year,  when  butterflies  are  moil 
numerous.  Among  others,  Gregory  of  Tours  mentions 
a  mower  of  blood  which  fell,  in  the  time  of  Childebert, 
in  different  parts  of  Paris,  and  upon  a  certain  Jioufe  in 
the  territory  of  Senlis ;  and,  about  the  end  of  the  month 
of  June,  another  likewife  fell  under  the  reign  of  King 
Robert. 

M.  de  Reaumur  remarks,  that  almoft  all  the  butterflies 
which  proceeded  from  different  fpecies  of  hairy  caterpillars 
in  his  poffeflion,  voided  at  lean:  one,  and  often  feveral 
large  drops  of  excrement,  which  had  the  colour  of  blood. 
The  hairy  caterpillar  that  feeds  upon  the  leaves  of  the  elm- 
tree,  after  its  transformation,  emits  drops,  the  colour  of 
which  is  of  a  more  deep  red  than  that  of  blood  ;  and,  af- 
ter being  dried,  their  colour  approaches  to  that  of  car- 
mine. From  another  caterpillar  of  the  elm,  which  is 
larger,  and  much  more  common  than  the  former,  pro- 
ceeds a  butterfly,  that,  immediately  after  its  transforma- 
tion, emits  a  great  quantity  of  red  excrement.  This  fpe- 
cies of  caterpillar,  in  particular  years,  is  fo  numerous, 
that  it  lays  bare  the  whole  trees  in  certain  diftricts.  My- 
riads of  them  are  transformed  into  chryfalids  about  the 
end  of  May  or  beginning  of  June.  When  about  to  un- 
dergo their  metaraorphofis,  they  often  attach  themfelves 
to  the  walls,  and  even  enter  into  the  country  houfes.— 
If  thefe  butterflies  were  all  brought  forth  at  the  fame  time, 
and  flew  in  the  fame  direction,  their  number  would  be 
fufficient  to  form  fmall  clouds,  to  cover  the  {tones,  &c.  of 
particular  districts  with  blood-coloured  fpots,  and  to  con- 
vince thofe  who  wifh  to  fright  themfelves,  and  to  fee  pro- 
digies, that  a  fhower  of  blood  had  fallen  during  the  night. 
Some  of  thofe  hairy  caterpillars  which  live  in  ibciety  up- 
on nettles,  likewife  emit  an  excrementitious  matter  of  a 
red  colour.  A  thoufand  examples  of  the  fame  kind  might 
be  enumerated.  Hence  the  notion  of  miraculous  or  por- 
tentous fhowers  of  blood  fhould  be  forever  banifhed  from 
the  minds  of  men. 

Mm  I  would 


274  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

I  would  not  have  faid  fo  much  upon  this  fubject,  if  I 
had  not  donfidered  it  to  be  the  duty  of  every  man,  when 
it  is  in  his  power,  to  remove  popular  prejudices,  efpecially 
when  they  have  a  direct  tendency  to  terrify  the  minds  of 
men,  and  to  cherim  ignorance  and  fuperftition. 

We  not  only  read  of  fhowers,  but,  what  feems  to  be 
more  unaccountable,  of  fountains,  running  occafionally 
with  blood  inltead  of  water.  Sir  David  Dalrymple,  one 
of  the  Senators  of  the  College  of  Juflice  in  Scotland,  a 
gentleman  not  more  diftinguifhed  by  his  learning  and 
deep  refearch,  than  by  his  fcrupulous  integrity  and  pro- 
priety of  conduct,  relates,  in  his  Annals  of  Scotland  *, 
upon  the  authority  of  Hoveden  and  Benedictus  Abbas, 
that,  in  the  year  1184,  c  A  fountain  near  Kilwinningf, 
6  in  the  mire  of  Air,  ran  blood  for  eight  days  and  eight 
nights  without  intermiffion.  This  portent  had  frequently 
appeared,  but  never  for  fo  long  a  fpace.  In  the  opinion 
of  the  people  of  the  country,  it  prognoflicated  the  efru- 
fion  of  bteod.  Benedictus  Abbas,  and  R.  Hoveden,  re- 
late the  flory  of  this  portent  with  perfect  credulity,  Be- 

*  nedictus  Abbas  improves  a  little  upon  his  brother ;  for 

*  he  is  pofitive  that  the  fountain  ^flowed  with  pure  blood/ 
If  Kilwinning,  like  Aix,  had  poffefled  fuch  a  philofopher 
as  Peirefc,  the  rednefs  of  the  water,  if  ever  it  did  appear, 
would  have  received  a  moft  fatisfactory  explanation. 

Transformations  are  not  peculiar  to  animals.  All  or- 
ganized bodies  pafs  through  fucceffive  changes.  Plants,  of 
courfe,  are  not  exempted  from  mutation.  What  an  amaz- 
ing difference  between  an  acorn  and  a  ftately  oak  ?  The 
feeds  of  plants  may  be  compared  to  the  chryfalids  of  but- 
terflies. The  feed,  like  the  chryfalis,  contains,  in  minia- 
ture, all  the  parts  of  the  future  plant.  Thefe  parts  require 
Only  time,  and  other  circumflances  necefFary  to  vegeta- 
tion, for  their  complete  evolution.  How  different  are  the 
feed-leaves  from  thofe  of  the  plume  ?  Befide  the  general 
changes  arifmg  from  growth,  plants  undergo  a  number 
of  metamorphofes  from  other  cauies.  In  northern  cli- 
mates, if  we  except  a  few  evergreens,  trees,  during  win- 
ter, are  entirely  ilripped  of  their  leaves.  Inftead  of  the 

pleafant 

*  V©1.  i.  page  29,8.     S.  t  A  Scottifh  village.     3. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         275 

pleafant  emotions  excited  by  the  variety  of  figures,  move- 
ments, colours,  and  fragrance  of  the  leaves,  flowers,  and 
fruit,  during  the  ipring  and  fummer,  nothing  is  exhibited 
in  winter  but  the  bare  ftems  and  branches.  In  this  (late, 
the  trees  of  the  foreft  have  a  lugubrious  appearance,  and 
remind  us  of  death  and  of  (keletons.  Very  different  are 
the  emotions  we  feel  in  the  fpring,  when  the  buds  begin  to 
burft,  and  the  leaves  to  expand.  When  fummer  ap- 
proaches, another  beautiful  change  takes  place.  The 
flowers,  with  all  their  fplendour  of  colours,  and  fweetnels 
of  flavours,  are  then  highly  delightful  to  our  fenfes.  Af- 
ter performing  the  office  of  cherifhing  and  protecting  the 
tender  fruit  for  fome  time,  the  flowers  drop  off,  and  a 
new  change  is  exhibited.  When  the  flowers  fall,  the 
young  fruit  appear,  and  gradually  grow  to  maturity,  per- 
petually prefenting  varieties  in  their  magnitude,  colour, 
odour,  and  flavour.  When  the  fruit  or  feeds  are  fully 
ripe,  they  are  gathered  for  the  ufe  of  man,  drop  down 
upon  the  earth,  or  are  devoured  by  birds  and  other  ani- 
mals. After  this  change  happens,  to  which  all  the  others 
were  only  preparatory,  the  leaves  begin  to  fried,  winter 
commences,  and  the  fame  feries  of  metamorphofes  go  on 
during  the  exiftence  of  the  plant. 

The  changes  jufl  now  mentioned  are  annual,  and  are 
ultimately  intended  to  fupply  men  and  other  animals  with 
food.  But  plants  are  fubje&ed  to  changes  of  form  from 
caufes  of  a  more  accidental  nature.  Varieties  or  changes 
in  the  figure  of  plants  are  often  produced  by  foil,  by  fitu- 
ation,  by  culture,  and  by  climate. 

A  plant  is  compofed  of  the  bark,  the  liber,  or  inner 
circle,  the  wood,  and  the  pith.  The  calyx,  or  cup,  the 
corolla,  or  flower-leaves,  the  (lamina,  and  piflils,  are 
only  expanfions  of  the  bark,  the  liber,  the  wood,  and 
the  pith.  The  petals  of  all  flowers,  in  a  natural  flate, 
are  fmgle.  But,  when  tranfplanted  into  gardens,  many 
of  them,  efpecially  thofe  which  are  furnifhed  with  nu- 
merous ftamina,  as  the  anemone,  the  poppy,  the  peony, 
the  ranunculus,  the  daify,  the  marigold,  the  rofe,  &c. 
double,  or  rather  multiply  their  flower-leaves  without 
end.  This  change  from  fmgle  to  double,  or  monilrous 

flowers, 


276  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

flowers,  as  they  are  caikd,  is  produced  by  too  great  a 
quantity  of  nutricious  juices,  which  prevents  the  fub- 
fiance  of  the  liber  from  condenfmg  into  wood,  and  tranf- 
forrns  the  flamina  into  petals  ;  and  it  not  unfrequentlv 
happens,  that,  when  thefe  double-flowering  plants  are 
committed  to  a  poor  foil,  they  become  drier,  are  redu- 
ced to  their  natural  ftate,  and  produ'ce  fingle  flowers  only. 
Plants  Yv-hidi  inhabit  the  valleys,  when  tranfported  to  the 
tops  OL  mountains,  or  other  elevated  fituations,  not  only 
b-vcnrr. "  clwarfifh,  but  undergo  inch  changes  in  their  ge- 
neral litMchirc  and  appearance,  that  they  are  often  thought 
ic  belong  to  a  different  fpecies,  though  they  are,  in  re- 
ality, 0*1  iy  varieties  of  the  fame.  Similar  changes  are 
produced  when  Alpine  or  mountain  plants  are  cultivated 
in  the  valleys. 

From  culture   and  climate^  likewife,  plants   undergo 
many  changes.     Bui;  this  fubjecl:  is  fo  generally  known, 
that  to  enlarge  upon  it  would  be  entirely  fuperfluous. 
We  lhall   only  remark,  that  the  older  botanifts,  when 
v  perceived  the  fame  fpecies  of  plants  growing  in  a 
erent  foil,  or  in  a  different  climate,  affume  fuch  diffe- 
?   it  'Appearances,  confidered  and  enumerated  them  as  dif- 
4>ecics.     But  the  modern  botanifts,  to  prevent  the 
Mv^'-eJary  multiplication  of  feparate  beings,  have  en- 
deavoured to  reduce  all  thofe  varieties  arifmgfrom  fortui- 
tous ctfctimftaniEe^  to  their  original  fpecies. 

From  thefe  facls,  and  many  others  -which  might  be 
mentioned.,  it  appears,  that,  in  both  the  animal  and  ve- 
ble  kingdoms,  forms  are  perpetually  changing.  The 
.c  .1  kingdom  is  not  iefs  fubjecl:  to  metamorphofis  ; 
but  ilK>f?  belong  not  to  our  prefent  fubjecl.  Though 
forms  continually  change,  the  quantity  of  matter  is  in- 
varal.-ie.  Tlie  fame  fubflances  pafs  fucceflively  into  the 
three  kingdoms,  raid  conflitute,  in  their  turn,  a  mineral, 
a  plant,  an  infect,  a  reptile,  a  fifh,  a  bird,  a  quadruped, 
a  nan.  In  theie  transformations,  organized  bodies  are 
the  principal  agents.  They  change  or  decompofe  every 
fubftance  that  either  enters  into  them,  or  is  expofed  to  the 
a&ion  of  their  powers.  Some  they  a'fiimulate,  by  the 
procefs  of  nutrition,  into  their  own  fubftance;  others 

-  they 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.        277 

they  evacuate  in  different  forms  ;  and  thefe  evacuations 
make  ingredients  in  the  compofitions  of  other  bodies,  as 
thofe  of  infects,  whofe  multiplication  is  prodigious,  and 
afFovds  a  very  great  quantity  of  organized  matter  for  the 
noj.rifhracnt  and  fupport  of  almod  every  animated  being. 
Th'.'s,  ir  m  the  apparently  vileft  and  mod  contemptible 
f  cies  of  matter,  the  riched  productions  derive  their  ori- 
gui.  The  mod  beautiful  flowers,  the  mod  exquifite  fruits, 
a-  1  the  mod  ufeful  grain,  all  proceed  from  the  bofom  of 
corruption.  The  earth  is  continually  bellowing  frefh 
gifts  upon  us ;  and  her  powers  would  foon  be  exhauded, 
if  what  (he  perpetually  gives  were  not  perpetually  redored 
to  her.  It  is  a  law  of  Nature,  that  all  organized  bodies 
fliould  be  decompofed,  and  gradually  transformed  into 
earth.  While  undergoing  this  fpecies  of  difiblution,  their 
more  volatile  particles  pals  into  the  air,  and  are  diffufed 
through  the  atmofphere.  Thus  animals,  at  lead  portions 
of  them,  are  buried  in  the  air,  as  well  as  in  the  earth, 
or  in  water.  Thefe  floating  particles  foon  enter  into  the 
competition  of  new  organized  beings,  who  are  themfelves 
dedined  to  undergo  the  fame  revolutions.  This  circula- 
tion of  organized  matter  has  continued  fince  the  com- 
mencement of  the  world,  and  will  proceed  in  the  fame 
courfe  till  its  final  dedrucHon. 

With  regard  to  the  intentions  of  Nature  in  changing 
forms,  a  complete  inveftigation  of  them  exceeds  the 
powers  of  human  refearch.  One  great  intention,  from 
the  examples  above  enumerated,  cannot  efcape  obferva- 
tion.  In  the  animal  world,  every  fuceeflive  change  is  a 
new  approach  to  the  perfection  of  the  individuals.  Men, 
and  the  larger  animals,  fome  time  after  the  age  of  pu- 
berty, remain  dationary,  and  continue  to  multiply  their 
fpecies  for  periods  proportioned  to  their  refpe&ive  fpecies. 
When  thofe  periods  terminate,  they  gradually  decay  till 
their  final  diflblution.  The  fame  obfervation  is  applica- 
ble to  the  infect  tribes,  whofe  transformations  drike  us 
with  wonder.  The  caterpillar  repeatedly  moults  or  cads 
off  its  Ikin.  The  butterfly  exided  originally  in  the  body 
of  the  caterpillar ;  but  the  organs  of  t,he  fly  were  too 
foft,  and  not  fufEciently  unfolded.  It  remains  unfit  to 

encounter 


THE    PHILOSOPHY 

encounter  the  open  air,  or  to  perform  the  fun&ions  of 
a  perfect  animal,  till  fame  time  after  its  transformation 
into  a  chryfalis.  It  then  burfis  through  its  envelope,  ar- 
rives at  a  ftate  of  perfection,  multiplies  its  fpecies,  and 
dies.  All  the  changes  in  the  vegetable  kingdom  tend 
to  the  fame  point.  In  the  procefs  of  growing,  they  are 
perpetually  changing  forms  till  they  produce  fruit,  and 
then  they  decay.  Some  plants,  like  caterpillars,  go 
through  all  their  transformations,  death  not  excepted,  in 
one  year.  But  others,  like  man  and  the  larger  animals, 
befide  the  common  changes  produced  by  growth  and  the 
evolution  of  different  organs,  continue  for  many  years 
in  a  ilate  of  perfection  before  the  periods  of  decay  and 
of  diflblution  arrive.  But  thefe  perennial  plants  under- 
go, every  year,  all  the  vicifTitudes  of  the  annuals.  They 
every  year  increafc  in  magnitude,  fend  forth  new  leaves 
and  branches,  ripen  and  dilfeminate  their  feeds,  and, 
during  winter,  remain  in  a  torpid  ftate,  or  fuffer  a  tem- 
porary death.  Thefe  annual  changes  in  trees,  &c.  have 
fome  refemblance  to  thofe  of  animals  which  produce  at 
certain  ftated  feafons  only. 

The  diftribution  of  life  to  an  immenfity  of  fucceffive 
individuals  feems  to  be  another  intention  of  Nature  in 
changing  forms,  and  in  the  diflblution  of  her  produc- 
tions. Were  the  exiftence  of  individuals  perpetual,  or 
were  it  prolonged  for  ten  times  the  periods  now  eftablifh- 
ed,  life  fhould  be  denied  to  myriads  of  animated  beings, 
who  enjoy  their  prefeiit  limited  portion  of  happinefs. 


CHAP. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY. 


CHAPTER        XIII. 

Of  the  Habitations  of  Animals. 


MANY  animals,  as  well  as  thofe  of  the  human  fpe* 
cies,  are  endowed  by  Nature  with  an  architectonic 
faculty.  This  faculty  is  beftowed  on  them  for  a  number 
of  wife  and  ufeful  purpofes.  It  enables  them  to  conftru£t 
proper  habitations  for  concealing  themfelves,  for  defend- 
ing them  againfl  the  attacks  of  their  enemies,  for  fhelter- 
ing  and  cheriming  their  young,  and  for  protecting  them 
from  the  injuries  of  the  weather. 

All  animals  of  the  fame  fpecies,  when-  not  reftrained  by 
accidental  caufes,  uniformly  build  in  the  fame  ftyle,  and 
ufe  the  fame  materials.  From  this  general  rul?  man  is  to 
be  excepted.  Poffeffed  of  a  fuperior  number  qf  inftinCts, 
of  which  the  reafoning  faculty  is  a  refult*,  h£  can  build 
in  any  ftyle,  and  employ  fuch  materials  as  his  tafte,  his 
fancy,  or  the  purpofes  for  which  the  fabrick  is  intended, 
mall  direct  him.  A  cottage  or  a  palace  are  equally  with- 
in the  reach  of  his  powers.  In  treating  of  this  fubjeCt, 
we  mean  not  to  trace  the  progrefs  of  human  architecture, 
tvhich,  in  the  earlier  ftages  of  fociety,  is  extremely  rude, 
but  to  confine  ourfelves  to  that  of  the  inferior  tribes  of 
animated  beings. 

With  regard  to  Quadrupeds •,  many  of  them  employ  no 
kind  of  architecture,  but  live  continually,  and  bring  forth 
their  young,  in  the  open  air.  When  not  under  the  im- 
mediate protection  of  man,  thefe  fpecies,  in  rough  or 
ilormy  weather,  fhelter  themfelves  arnong  trees  or  bufhes, 
retire  under  the  coverture  of  projecting  rocks,  or  the  fides 
of  hills  oppofite  to  thofe  from  which  the  wind  proceeds. 
Befide  thefe  arts  of  defence,  to  which  the  creatures  are 

prompted 

*  See  Chap,  V,  Of  Inflinft.     S. 


THE     PHILOSOPHY 

prompted  by  inftinct  and  experience.  Nature  furniihes 
them,  during  the  winter  months,  with  a  double  po^ijn 
of  long  hair,  which  protects  them  from  cold,  and  other 
aflaults  of  the  weather. 

Of  the  quadrupeds  that  make  or  choofe  habitations  for 
themfelves,  fome  dig  holes  in  the  earth,  fome  take  refuge 
in  the  cavities  of  decayed  trees,  and  in  the  clefts  of  rocks, 
and  fome  actually  conftruct  cabins,  or  houfes.  But,  the 
artifices  they  employ,  the  materials  they  ufe,  and  the 
fituations  they  felect,  are  fo  various,  and  fo  numerous, 
that  our  plan  neceflarily  limits  us  to  a  few  of  the  more 
curious  examples. 

The  Alpine  marmot  is  a  quadruped  about  fixteen  inches 
in  length,  and  has  a  fhort  tail.  In  figure,  the  marmots 
have  fome  refemblance  both  to  the  rat  and  to  the  bear. 
When  tamed,  they  eat  every  thing  prefented  to  them,  as 
flefh,  bread,  fruit,  roots,  pot-herbs,  infects,  &c.  They 
delight  in  the  regions  of  froft  and  of  mow,  and  are  only 
to  be  found  on  the  tops  of  the  higheft  mountains.  Thefe 
animals  remain  in  a  torpid  ftate  during  winter.  About 
the  end  of  September,  or  the  beginning  of  October, 
they  retire  into  their  holes,  and  never  come  abroad  again 
till  the  beginning  of  April.  Their  retreats  are  formed 
with  much  art  and  precaution.  With  their  feet  and  claws, 
which  are  admirably  adapted  to  the  purpofe,  they  dig  the 
earth  with  amazing  quicknefs,  and  throw  it  behind  them. 
They  do  not  make  a  fimple  hole,  or  a  ftraight  or  winding 
tube,  but  a  kind  of  gallery  in  the  form  of  a  Y,  each 
branch  of  which  has  an  aperture,  and  both  terminate  in 
a  capacious  apartment,  where  feveral  of  the  animals  lodge 
together.  As  the  whole  operation  is  performed  on  the 
declivity  of  a  mountain,  this  innermoft  apartment  is  alone 
horizontal.  Both  branches  of  the  Y  are  inclined.  One 
of  the  branches  defcends  under  the  apartment,  and  follows 
the  declivity  of  the  mountain.  This  branch  is  a  kind  of 
aqueduct,  and  receives  and  carries  off  the  excrements  of 
the  animals ;  and  the  other,  which  rifes  above  the  princi- 
pal apartment,  is  ufed  for  coming  in  and  going  out.  The 
place  of  their  abode  is  well  lined  with  inofs  and  hay,  of 
which  they  lay  up  great  ftore  during  the  fummer.  They 

are 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         281 

are  focial  animals.     Several  of  them  live  together,  and 
work  in  common  when  forming  their  habitations.     Thi- 
ther they  retire  during  rain,  or  upon  the  approach  of  dan- 
ger.    One  of  them  ftands  centinel  upon  a  rock,  while  the 
others  gambol  upon  the  gfafs,  or  are  employed  in  cutting 
it,  in  order  to  make  hay.     If  the  centinel  perceives  a  man, 
an  eagle,  a  dog,  or  other  dangerous  animal,  he  alarms  his 
companions  by  a  loud  whittle,  and  is  himfelf  the  laft  that 
enters  the  hole.     As  they  continue  torpid  during  winter, 
and,  as  if  they  forefaw  that  they  would  then  have  no  oc- 
cafion  for  victuals,  they  lay  up  no  provifions  in  their  apart- 
ments.    But,  when  they  feel  the  firft  approaches  of  the 
fleeping  feafon,  they  fhut  up  both  paflages  to  their  habi- 
tation ;  and  this  operation  they  perform  with  fuch  labour 
and  folidity,  that  it  is  more  eafy  to  dig  the  earth  any  where 
elfe  than  in  fuch  parts  as  they  have  thus  fort! lied.     At 
this  time  they  are  very  fat,  weighing  fometimes  twenty 
pounds.     They  continue  to  be  plump  for  three  months  ; 
but  afterwards  they  gradually  decline,  and,  at  the  end  of 
winter,  they  are  extremely  emaciated.     When  lei  zed  in 
their  retreats,  they  appear  rolled  up  in  the  form  of  a  ball, 
.  and  covered  with  hay.     In  this  flate,  they  are  fo  torpid 
that  they  may  be  killed  without  feeming  to  feel  pain.    The 
hunters  fekct  the  fatted  for  eating,  and  keep  the  youm>; 
ones  for  taming.     Like  the  dormice,  and  all  the  other  ani- 
mals which  ileep  during  winter,  the  marmors  are  revived 
by  a  gradual  and  gentle  heat :  And  it  is  remarkable,  that 
thofe  which  are  fed  in  houfes,  and  kept  warm,  never  be- 
come torpid,  but  are  equally  active  and  lively  during  the 
whole  year. 

We  mall  now  give  a  fhoit  account  of  the  operations 
and  architecture  of  the  beaver.  This  amphibious  qua- 
druped is  about  three  feet  in  length,  and  its  tail,  which 
is  of  an  oval  figure,  and  covered  with  fcales,  is  eleven 
inches  long.  He  ufes  his  tail  as  a  rudder  to  direct  his 
courfe  in  the  water.  In  places  much  frequented  by  man, 
the  beavers  neither  aflbciate  nor  build  habitations.  But., 
in  the  northern  regions  of  both  Comments,  they  aiTein- 
ble  in  the  month  of  June  or  July,  for  the  purpofes  of 
uniting  into  fociety  and  of  building  a  city.  From  all 

N  n  quarters 


282  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

quarters  they  arrive  in  numbers,  and  foon  form  a  troop 
of  two  or  three  hundred.  The  operations  and  architec- 
ture of  the  beavers  are  fo  well  defcribed  by  the  Courit 
de  Buffon,  that  we  mail  lay  it  before  our  readers  nearly 
in  his  own  words.  The  place  of  rendezvous,  he  remarks, 
is  generally  the  fituation  fixed  upon  for  their  eftablim- 
ment,  and  it  is  always  on  the  banks  of  waters.  If  the 
waters  be  flat,  and  feldom  rife  above  their  ordinary  level, 
as  in  lakes,  the  beavers  make  no  bank  or  dam.  But  in 
rivers  or  brooks,  where  the  water  is  fubjecl:  to  rifmgs  and 
fallings,  they  build  a  bank,  which  traverfes  the  river 
from  one  fide  to  the  other,  like  a  fluice,  and  is  often  from 
80  to  TOO  feet  long,  by  10  or  i  2  broad  at  the  bafe.  This 
pile,  for  animals  of  fo  fmall  a  fize,  appears  to  be  enor- 
mous, and  prefuppofes  an  incredible  labour*.  But  the 
folidity  with  which  the  work  is  conftructed  is  dill  more 
aftoniming  than  its  magnitude.  The  part  of  the  river 
where  they  erect  this  bank  is  generally  mallow.  If  they 
find  on  the  margin  a  large  tree,  which  can  be  made  to 
fall  into  the  river,  they  begin,  by  cutting  it  down,  to 
form  the  principal  bafis  of  their  work.  This  tree  is  often 
thicker  than  a  man's  body.  By  gnawing  it  at  the  bottom 
with  their  four  cutting  teeth,  they  in  a  mort  time  accom- 
pliih  their  purpoft,  and  always  make  the  tree  fall  acrofs 
the  river.  They  next  cut  the  branches  from  the  trunk 
to  make  it  lie  level.  Thefe  operations  are  performed  by 
the  joint  iaduilry  of  the  whole  community.  Some  of 
them,  at  the  fame  time,  traverfe  the  banks  of  the  river, 
and  cut  down  fmaller  trees,  from  the  iize  of  a  man's  leg 
to  that  of  his  thigh.  Thefe  they  cut  to  a  certain  length, 
drefs  them  into  (takes,  and  firft  drag  them  by  land  to  the 
margin  of  the  river,  and  then  by  water  to  the  place  where 
the  building  is  carrying  on.  Thefe  piles  they  fink  down, 
and  interweave  the  branches  with  the  larger  flakes.  In 
performing  this  operation  many  difficulties  are  to  be  fur- 
mounted.  In  order  to  drefs  thefe  (lakes,  and  to  put  them 
in  a  fituation  nearly  perpendicular,  fome  of  the  beavers 
mud  elevate,  with  their  teeth,  the  thick  ends  againd  the 
margin  of  the  river,  or  againd  the  crofs  tree,  white 

others 

*  The  largeft  beavers  weigh  only  ,50  or  60  pounds.     S. 


OF  NATURAL  HISTORY.      283 

others  plunge  to  the  bottom,  and  dig  holes  with  their 
forc-fcct  to  receive  the  points,  that  they  may  ftand  on 
end.  When  fome  are  labouring  in  this  manner,  others 
Bring  earth,  which  they  plafh  with  their  feet,  and  beat 
firm  with  their  tails.  They  carry  the  earth  in  their 
mouths,  and  with  their  fore-feet.  They  tranfport  earth 
in  fuch  quantities,  that  they  fill  with  it  all  the  intervals 
between  the  piles.  Thefe  piles  confifl  of  ieveral  rows 
of  flakes,  of  equal -height,  all  placed  "oppofite  to  each 
other,  and  extend  from  one  bank  of  the  river  to  the 
other.  The  (takes  facing  the  under  part  of  the  river  are 
placed  perpendicularly  ;  but  thofe  which  are  oppofed  to 
the  (cream  flope  upward  to  fuftain  the  prcffure  of  the 
water  ;  fo  that  the  bank,  which  is  ten  or  twelve  feet  wide 
at  the  bafe,  is  reduced  to  two  or  three  at  the  top.  Near 
the  top,  or  thinnefl  part  of  the  bank,  the  beavers  make 
two  or  three  floping  holes,  to  allow  the  furface-water  to 
efcapc.  Thefe  they  enlarge  or  contract  in  proportion  as 
the  river  rifes  or  falls ;  and,  when  any  breaches  are  made 
in  the  bank  by  fudden  or  violent  inundations,  they  know 
how  to  repair  them  when  the  water  fubfides. 

Hitherto  all  thefe  operations  were  performed  by  the 
united  force  and  dexterity  of  the  whole  community. 
They  how  feparate  into  fmaller  focieties,  who  build  ca- 
bins or  houfes.  Thefe  cabins  are  conflrncled  upon  piles 
near  the  margin  of  the  river  or  pond,  and  have  two  open- 
ings, one  for  the  animals  going  to  the  land,  and  the 
other  for  throwing  themfelves  into  the  water.  The  form 
of  thefe  edifices  is  either  round  or  oval,  arid  they  vary 
in  fize  from  four  or  five  to  eight  or  ten  feet  in  diameter. 
Some  of  them  confifl  of  three  or  four  flories.  Their 
walls  are  about  two  feet  thick ;  and  are  raifed  perpendi- 
cularly upon  planks,  or  plain  ftakes,  which  ferve  both 
for  foundations  and  floors  to  their  houfes.  When  they 
confifl  of  but  one  ftory,  they  rife  perpendicularly  a  few 
feet  only,  afterwards  afiume  a  curved  form,  and  termi- 
nate in  a  dome  or  vault,  which  anfwers  the  purpofe  of 
a  roof.  They  are  built  with  amazing  folidity,  and  neatly 
plaftered  with  a  kind  of  ftucco  both  within  and  without. 
In  the  application  of  this  mortar  the  tails  of  the  beavers 

*  ferve 


284  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

ferve  for  trowels,  and  their  feet  for  plafning.  Their  hou- 
fes  are  impenetrable  to  rain,  and  refill  the  mod  impetuous 
winds.  In  their  conftruction,  they  employ  different  ma- 
terials, as  wood,  ftoiie,  and  a  kind  of  iandy  earth,  which 
is  not  liable  lo  be  difiblved  in  water.  The  wood  they 
ufe  is  generally  of  the  light  and  tender  kinds,  as  alders, 
poplars,  and  willows,  which  commonly  grow  on  the 
banks  of  rivers,  ?i)d  are  more  eafily  barked,  cut,  and 
tranfpnrt<:-.l,  t!mn  the  heavier  and  more  {'olid  fpecies  of 
timber.  They  always  begin  the  operation  of  cutting 
trees  at  a  foot  or  n  foot  and  a  half  above  the  ground": 
They  labour  in  a  fitting  pofture ;  and,  befide  the  conve- 
nience of  this  pofture,  they  enjoy  the  plcafure  of  gnaw- 
ing perpetually  the  bark  and  wood,  which  are  their  fa- 
vourite food.  Of  thefe  proviiions  they  lay  up  ample  frores 
in  their  cabins  to  fupport  them  during  the  winter.  Each 
cabin  has  its  own  magazine,  which  is  proportioned  to 
the  number  of  its  inhabitants,  who  have  all  a,  common 
right  to  the  flore,  and  never  pillage  their  neighbours. 
Some  villages  are  compofed  of  twenty  or  twenty-five  ca- 
bins. But  thefe  large  eftablilhments  are  not  frequent ; 
and  the  common  republics  feldom  exceed  ten  or  twelve 
families,  of  which  each  have  their  own  quarter  of  the 
village,  their  own  magazine,  and  their  feparate  habita- 
tion. The  finalleft  cabins  contain  two,  four,  or  fix,  and 
the  largeft  eighteen,  twenty,  and  fometimes  thirty  bea- 
vers. As  to  males  and  females,  they  are  almoft  always 
equally  paired,  Upon  a  moderate  computation,  therer 
fore,  the  fociety  is  often  compofed  of  150  or  200,  who 
all,  at  firft,  labour  jointly  in  raifing  the  great  public 
building,  and  afterwards,  in  felecfc  tribes  or  companies, 
in  making  particular  habitations.  In  this  fociety,  how- 
ever numerous,  an  univerfal  peace  is  maintained.  Their 
union  is  cemented  by  common  labours  ;  and  it  is  perpe- 
tuated by  mutual  conveniency,  and  the  abundance  of 
provifions  which  they  amafs  and  confume  together.  A 
fimple  tafte,  moderate  appetites,  and  an  averfion  to  blood 
#nd  carnage,  render  them  deflitute  of  the  ideas  of  rapine 
and  of  war.  Friends  to  each  other,  if  they  have  any  fo- 
reign enemies  they  know  how  to  avoid  them.  When 

danger 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY. 

danger  approaches,  they  advert? fe  one  another,  by  (hi- 
king their  broad  tail  on  the  furface  of  the  water,  the 
noife  of  which  is  heard  at  a  great  djftance,  and  refounds 
through  all  the  vaults  of  their  habitations.  Each  indi- 
viduaf,  upon  tliefc  occafionsr,  confuhs  his  own  fafety ; 
fome  plunge  in.' o  the  water;  others  conceal  themfelves 
within  their  walls,  which  can  be  penetrated  only  by  the 
fire  of  heaven,  or  the  fteel  of  man,  and  which  no  ani- 
mal will  attempt  either  to  open  or  to  overturn.  Thefe 
retreats  are  not  only  fafe,  but  neat  and  commodious.  The 
floors  are  fpread  over  with  verdure  :  The  branches  of 
the  box  and  of  the  fir  ferve  them  for  carpets,  upon  which 
they  permit  not  the  (mailed  dirtinefs.  The  window  that 
faces  the  water  anfwers  for  a  balcony  to  receive  the  frefh 
air,  and  for  the  purpofe  of  bathing.  During  the  greater 
part  of  the  day,  the  beavers  fit  on  end,  with  their  head 
and  the  anterior  parts  of  their  body  elevated,  and  their 
poderior  parts  funk  in  the  water.  The  aperture  of  this 
window  is  fufficiently  raifed  to  prevent  its  being  dopped 
up  with  the  ice,  which,  in  the  beaver  climates,  is  often 
two  or  three  feet  thick.  When  this  accident  happens, 
they  Hope  the  fole  of  the  window,  cut  obliquely  the  (takes 
which  fupport  it,  and  thus  open  a  communication  with 
the  unfrozen  water.  They  often  fwim  a  long  way  under 
the  ice.  The  continual  habit  of  keeping  their  tail  and 
poderior  parts  of  their  body  in  the  water,  appears  to  have 
changed  the  nature  of  their  flefh ;  for  that  of  their  ante- 
rior parts,  as  far  as  the  reins,  has  the  tade  and  confidence 
of  the  flefh  of  land-animals  ;  but  that  of  the  tail  and 
poderior  parts  has  the  odour  and  all  the  other  qualities 
of  fifh.  The  tail,  which  is  a  foot  long,  an  inch  thick, 
and  five  or  fix  inches  broad,  is  a  genuine  portion  of  a 
fidi  attached  to  the  body  of  a  quadruped :  It  is  wholly 
covered  with  fcales,  and  below  the  fcales  with  a  fkin  per- 
fectly fimilar  to  that  of  large  fidies.  In  September,  the 
beavers  collect  their  provisions  of  bark  and  of  wood. 
Till  the  end  of  winter,  they  remain  in  their  cabins,  en- 
joy the  fruits  of  their  labours,  and  tade  the  fweets  of 
domeftic  happinefs.  This  is  their  time  of  repofe,  and 
their  feafon  of  love.  Knowing  scud  loving  one  another, 

each 


286  T  H  E    P  H  I  L  Q  S  O  P  H  Y 

each  couple  unite,  not  by  chance,  but  by-tafte  and  a  real 
fele&ion.  The  females  bring  forth  in  the  end  of  vvinte*, 
and  generally  produce  two  or  three  at  a  time.  About 
this  period  they  are  left  by  the  males,  who  retire  to  the 
country  to  enjoy  the  pleafures.  and  the  fruits  of  the  fpring. 
They  return  cccafionally,  however,  to  their  cabins  ;  but 
dwell  there  no  more.  The  mothers  continue  in  the  ca- 
bins, and  are  occupied  in  nurfmg,  protecting,  and  rear- 
ing their  young,  which  in  a  few  weeks  are  in  a  condition 
to  follow  their  dams.  The  beavers  aifemble  not '  again 
till  autumn,  unlefs  their  banks  or  cabins  be  injured  by 
inundations ;  for,  when  accidents  of  this  kind  happen, 
they  fuddcnly  col  left  their  forces,  and  repair  the  breach- 
es that  have  been  made. 

This  account  of  the  fpciety  and  operations  of  beavers, 
however  marvellous  it  may  appear,  has  been  eftablifhed 
and  confirmed  by  fo  many  credible  eye-witndTes,  that  it 
is  impoffible  to  doubt  of  its  reality. 

The  habitation  where  moles  depofit  their  young  merits 
a  particular  defcription  ;  bc-caufe  it  is  conftructed  with 
peculiar  intelligence,  and  beeaufe  the  mole  is  an  animal 
with  which  we  are  well  acquainted.  They  begin  by  rail- 
ing the  earth,  and  forming  a  pretty  high  arch.  They 
leave  partitions,  or  a  kind  of  pillars,  at  certain  didances, 
beat  and  prefs  the  -earth,  interweave  it  with  the  roots  of 
plants,  and  render  it  fo  hard  and  fclici,  that  the  water 
cannot  penetrate  the  vault,  on  account  of  its  convexity 
and  firmnefs.  They  then  elevate  a  little  hillock  under  the 
principal  arch ;  upon  the  latter  they  lay  herbs  and  leaves 
for  a  bed  to  their  young.  In  this  fituation  they  are  above 
the  level  of  the  ground,  and,  of  courfe,  beyond  the  reach 
of  ordinary  inundations.  They  are,  at  the  fame  time,  de- 
fended from  the  rains  by  the  large  vault  that  covers  the 
internal  one,  upon  the  convexity  of  which  lad  they  red 
along  with  their  young.  This  internal  hillock  is  pierced 
oil  all  fides  with  Hoping  holes,  which  defcend  dill  lower, 
and  ferve  as  fubterrancous  padages  for  the  mother  to  go 
in  qued  of  food  for  herfelf  and  her  offspring.  Thefe  by- 
paths are  beaten  and  firm,  extend  about  twelve  or  fifteen 
paces,  and  iifue  from  t^e  principal  manfion  like  rays  from 

a  center. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         259 

a  center.  Under  the  fuperior  vault  we  likewife  find  re- 
mains of  the  roots  of  the  meadow  faffron,  which  feern  to 
be  the  firft  food  given  to  the  young.  From  this  defcrip- 
tion  it  appears,  that  the  mole  never  comes  abroad  but  at 
confiderable  diflances  from  her  habitation.  Moles,  like 
the  beavers,  pair  ;  and  fo  lively  and  reciprocal  an  attach- 
ment fubfifts  between  them,  that  they  feem  to  difrelifh 
all  other  fociety.  In  their  dark  abodes  they  enjoy  the 
placid  habits  of  repofe  and  of  folitude,  the  art  of  fecuring 
themfelves  from  injury,  of  almofl  inftantaneoufiy  making 
an  afylum  or  habitation,  and  of  procuring  a  plentiful  fub- 
fiilence  without  the  neceffity  of  going  abroad.  They  fhut 
up  the  entrance  of  their  retreats,  and  feldom  leave  them, 
unlefs  compelled  by  the  admiflion  of  water,  or  when  their 
manfions  are  demolifhed  by  art. 

The  nidification  of  Birds  has  at  all  times  defervedly 
called  forth  the  admiration  of  mankind.  In  general,  the 
nefts  of  birds  are  built  with  an  art  fo  exquifite,  that  an 
exact  imitation  of  them  exceeds  ail  the  powers  of  human 
(kill  and  induftry.  Their  ftyle  of  architecture,  the  mate- 
rials they  employ,  and  the  fituations  they  felect,  are  as 
various  as  the  different  fpecies.  Individuals  of  the  fame 
fpecies,  whatever  region  of  the  globe  they  inhabit,  col- 
lect the  fame  materials,  arrange  and  conftruct  them  in  the 
fame  form,  and  make  choice  of  fimilar  fituations  for  erect- 
ing their  temporary  habitations  -y  for  the  nefts  of  -birds, 
thofe  of  the  eagle-kind  excepted,  after  the  young  have 
come  to  maturity,  are  forever  abandoned  by  the  parents. 

To  defcribe  minutely  the  n ells  of  birds  would  be  a  vain 
attempt.  Such  defcriptions  could  not  convey  an  adequate 
idea  of  their  architecture  to  a  perfoh  who  had  never  feen 
one  of  thofe  beautiful  and  commodious  habitations,  which 
even  aftonifh  and  excite  the  amazement  of  children. 

The  different  orders  of  birds  exhibit  gre-it  variety  in 
the  materials  and  ftructure  of  their  ndts.  Thofe  of  the 
rapacious  tribes  are 'in  general  rude,  and  ;compofed  -  of 
coarfe  materials,  as  dried  twigs,  bents,  ixc.  -But,  they  arc 
often  lined  vrith  foft  fuhftances.  Thcv  bulk!  in  elevated 
rocks,  ruinous  and  iequeft creel  eaitles  and  towers,  and  in 
other  -folitary  retirements,  'Hie  aiey-  or  ::eft  of  the  ca^le 


288  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

is  quite  flat,  and  not  hollow,  like  thofe  of  other  birds/ 
The  male  and  female  commonly  place  their  neft  between 
two  rocks,  in  a  dry  and  inacceflible  fituation.  The  fume 
neft,  it  is  faid,  ferves  the  eagle  during  life.  The  ftruc- 
ture  is  fo  considerable,  and  compofed  of  fuch  folid  mate- 
rials, that  it  may  lad  many  years.  Its  form  refembles  that 
of  a  floor.  Its  bafis  confifts  of  flicks  about  five  or  fix  feet 
in  length,  which  are  fupported  at  each  end,  and  thefe  are 
covered  with  feveral  layers  of  rulhes  and  heath.  An  ea- 
gle's neft  was  found  in  the  Peak  of  Derbyshire,  which 
Willoughby  defcribes  in  the  following  manner :  '  It  was 
6  made  of  great  flicks,  reding  one  end  on  the  edge  of  a 

*  rock,  the  other  on  a  birch  tree.     Upon  thefe  was  a  layer 

*  of  rulhes,  and  over  them  a  layer  of  heath,  and  upon  the 
6  heath  rufhes  again ;  upon  which  lay  one  young,  and  an 

*  addle  egg  ;  and  by  them  a  lamb,  a  hare,  and  three  heath- 

*  pouts.     The  neft  was  about  two  yards  fquare,  and  had 
6  no  hollow  in  it,'     But  the  butcher-birds,  or  fhrikes, 
which  are  lefs  rapacious  than  eagles  and  hawks,  build 
their  habitations  in  fhrubs  and  bufhes,  and  employ  mofs, 
wool,  and  other  foft  materials. 

The  birds  belonging  to  the  order  of  Pies  in  the  inge- 
nious Mr.  Pennant's  Genera  of  Birds,  are  extremely  irre- 
gular in  conftrucling  their  nefts.  The  common  magpies 
build  their  nefts  in  trees,  and  their  ftructure  is  admirably 
contrived  for  affording  warmth  and  protection  to  the 
young.  The  neft  is  not  open  at  top :  It  is  covered,  in 
the  moft  dexterous  manner,  with  an  arch  or  dome,  arid  a 
fmall  opening  in  the  fide  of  it  is  left,  to  give  the  parents 
an  opportunity  of  pafling  in  and  out  at  their  pleafure.  To 
protect  their  eggs  and  young  from  the  attacks  of  other 
animals,  the  magpies  place,  all  round  the  external  furface 
of  their  neft,  fharp  briars  and  thorns.  The  long-tailed 
titmoufe,  or  ox-eye,  builds  nearly  like  the  wren,  but  with 
flill  greater  art.  With  the  fame  materials  ag  the  reft  of 
the  ftruclure,  the  titmoufe  builds  an  arch  over  the  top  of 
the  neft,  which  refembles  an  egg  erected  upon  one  end, 
and  leaves  a  fmall  hole  in  the  fide  for  a  paflage.  Both 
eggs  and  young,  by  this  contrivance,  are  defended  from 
the  injuries  of  the  air,  rain,  cold,  &c.  That  the  young 

may 


O  F   N  AT  U  R  A  L    H I S  T  O  R  Y.          289 

may  have  a  foft  and  warm  bed,  (he  lines  the  infide  of  the 
nefl  with  feathers,  down,  and  cobwebs.  The  fides  and 
roof  are  compofed  of  mofs  and  wool  interwoven  in  the 
mofbcurious  and  artificial  manner. 

In  treating  of  inftincl,  it  was  mentioned,  that,  in  warm 
climates,  many  fmall  birds  fufpended  their  nefts  on*  tender 
twigs  of  trees,  to  prevent  them  from  being  deftroyed  by 
the  monkeys.  In  Europe,  there  are  only  three  birds  which 
build  penfile  nefts,  namely,  the  common  oriola  *,  the  pa- 
ruspendulinus^  or  hang-neft  titmoufe  ;  and  another  penfile 
neft,  belonging  to  fome  unknown  bird,  was  lately  difco- 
vered  by  Mr.  Pennant,  near  the  houfe  of  Blair  in  Athole, 
in  the  north  of  Scotland.  '  In  a  fpruce  fir-tree,'  Mr. 
Pennant  remarks,  c  was  a  hang-neft  of  fome  unknown 
c  bird,  fufpended  at  the  four  corners  to  the  boughs.  It 
6  was  open  at  top,  an  inch  and  a  half  diameter,  and  two 
c  deep ;  the  fides  and  bottom  thick  ;  the  materials  mofs, 
c  worded,  and  birch  bark,  lined  with  feathers  -)-.' 

Mr.  Pennant,  in  his  Indian  Zoology,  gives  the  follow- 
ing curious  account  of  the  manner  in  which  the  motacilla 
futoria,  or  tailor-bird,  builds  its  neft.  6  Had  providence/ 
Mr.  Pennant  remarks,  *  left  the  feathered  tribes  unendow- 
c  ed  with  any  particular  inftincl,  the  birds  of  the  torrid 
c  zone  would  have  built  their  nefts  in  the  fame  unguarded 
6  manner  as  thofe  of  Europe  ;  but  there  the  leffer  fpecies, 
c  having  a  certain  prefcience  of  the  dangers  that  furround 

*  them,  and  of  their  own  weaknefs,  fufpend  their  nefts  at 
4  the  extreme  branches  of  the  trees:  They  are  confcious 
c  of  inhabiting  a  climate  replete  with  enemies  to  them  and 

*  their  young  ;  with  fnakes   that  twine  up  the  bodies  of 
c  the  trees,  and  apes  that  are  perpetually  in  fearch  of 
e  prey  ;  but,  heaven-inftrucled,  they  elude  the  gliding  of 

*  the  one,  and  the  activity  of  the  other. — The  brute  crea- 

*  tion  are  more  at  enmity  with  one  another  than  in  other 
'  climates  ;  and  the  birds  are  obliged  to  exert  an  unufual 
4  artifice  in  placing  their  little  broods  out  of  the  reach  of 

*  an  invader.     Each  aims  at  the  fame  end,  though  by  dif- 

*  ferent  means ;  fome  form  their  penfile  neft  in  fliape  of 

*  a  purfe,  deep  and  open  at  top,  others  with  a  hole  in  the 

O  o  <  fide, 

*  Oriolus  Galbula,  I  Pennant's  Tour,  vol.  i.  pag.  104.  3d  edit.     S. 


29o  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

*  fide,  and  others,  flill  more  cautious,  with  an  entrance  at 
'  the  very  bottom,  forming  their  lodge  near  the  fummit*. 
6  But  the  tailor-bird  feems  to  have  greater  diffidence  than 

*  any  of  the  others :  It  will  not  truft  its  neft  even  to  the 
4  extremity  of  g.  {lender  twig,  but  makes  one  more  ad* 
€  vance  to  fafety  by  fixing  it  to  the  leaf  itfelf.     It  picks 
6  up  a  dead  leaf,  and,  furprifmg  to  relate,  fews  it  to  the 

*  fide  of  a  living  one  f,  its  flender  bill  being  its  needle, 
6  and  its  thread  fome  fine  fibres,  the  lining  feathers,  goffa- 
4  mer,  and  down.     Its  eggs  are  white,  the  colour  of  the 
'  bird  light  yellow ;  its  length  three  inches ;  its  weight 

*  only  three  fixteenths  of  an  ounce  ;  fo  that  the  mate- 
6  rials  of  the  neft,  and  its   own  fize,  are  not  likely  to 
6  draw  down  a  habitation  that  depends  on  fo  flight  a  ten- 


ture  J.' 


Birds  of  the  gallinaceous  or  poultry  kind  lay  their  eggs 
on  the  ground.  Some  of  them  fcrape  a  kind  of  hole  in 
the  earth,  and  line  it  with  a  little  long  grafs  or  flraw. 

It  is  a  fingular,  though  a  well-attefted  fadt,  that  the 
cuckow  makes  no  neft,  and  neither  hatches  nor  feeds  her 
own  young.  '  The  hedge-fparrow,'  fays  Mr.  Willough- 
by,  '  is  the  cuckow's  nurfe,  but  not  the  hedge-fparrow 
c  only,  but  alfo  ring-doves,  larks,  finches.  I  myfelf,  with 
'  many  others,  have  feen  a  wag-tail  feeding  a  young  cuc- 

*  kow.     The  cuckow  herfelf  builds  no  neft  ;  but  having 
c  found  the  neft  of  fome  little  bird,  fhe  either  devours  or 
6  deftroys  the  eggs  fhe  there  finds,  and,  in  the  room  thereof, 
6  lays  one  of  her  own,  and  fo  forfakes  it.    The  filly  bird  re- 
c  turning,  fits  on  this  egg,  hatches  it,  and,  with  a  great  deal 

*  of  care  and  toil,  broods,  feeds,  and  cherifhes  the  young 
6  cuckow  for  her  own,  until  it  be  grown  up,  and  able  to  fly 
c  and  fhift  for  itfelf.     Which  thing  feems  fo  ftrange,  mon- 
6  ftrous,  and  abfurd,  that  for  my  part  I  cannot  fufficiently 

*  wonder  there  fhould  be  fuch  an  example  in  Nature  ;  nor 
6  could  I  ever  have  been  induced  to  believe  that  fuch  a  thing 

4  had 

*  This  inftinft  prevails  alfo  among  the  birds  on  the  banks  of  the  Gambia,  in 
Africa,  which  abounds  with  monkeys  and  fnakes  ;  others,  for  the  fame  end,  make 
their  neft  in  holes  of  the  banks  that  overhang  that  vaft  fiver.  Purchas,  vol.  s« 
pag.  1576.  S. 

t  A  neft  of  this  bird  is  preferved  in  the  Britifh  Mufcum.     S. 

t  Pennant's  Indian  Zoology,  pag.  7.    S. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         291 

*  had  been  done  by  Nature's  inftindt,  had  I  not  with  mine 
6  own  eyes  feen  it.     For  Nature,  in  other  things,  is  wont 
'  conftantly  to  obferve  one  and  the  fame  law  and  order, 

*  agreeable  to  the  higheft  reafon  and  prudence  ;  which  in 
'  this  cafe  is,  that  the  dams  make  nefts  for  themfelves,  if 

*  need  be,  fit  upon  their  own  eggs,  and  bring  up  their  own 
'  young  after  they  are  hatched*.'    This  ceconomy,  in  the 
hiftory  of  the  cuckow,  is  not  only  fingular,  but  feems  to 
contradicl  one  of  the  moil  univerfal  laws  eftablifhed  among 
animated  beings,  and  particularly  among  the  feathered 
tribes,  namely,  the  hatching  and  rearing  of  their  offspring. 
Still,  however,  like  the  oftrich  in  very   warm  climates, 
though  the  cuckow  neither  hatches  nor  feeds  her  young, 
(he  places  her  eggs  in  fituations  where  they  are  both  hatch- 
ed and  her  offspring  brought  to  maturity.     Here  the  ftu- 
pidity  of  the  one  animal  makes  it  a  dupe  to  the  rapine 
and  chicane  of  the  other  ;  for  the  cuckow  always  deftroys 
the  eggs  of  the  fmall  bird  before  flie  depofits  her  own. 

Mod  of  the  pafferine  or  fmall  birds  build  their  nefts  in 
hedges,  flirubs,  or  buihes  ;  though  fonie  of  them,  as 
the  lark  and  the  goat-fucker,  build  upon  the  ground. 
The  nefts  of  fmall  birds  are  more  delicate  in  their  ftruc- 
ture  and  contrivance  than  thofe  of  the  larger  kinds.  As 
the  fize  df  their  bodies,  and  likewife  that  of  their  eggs, 
are  fmaller,  the  materials  of  which  their  nefts  are  compof- 
ed  are  generally  warmer.  Small  bodies  retain  heat  a 
fhorter  time  than  thofe  which  are  large.  Hence  the  eggs 
of  fmall  birds  require  a  more  conftant  fupply  of  heat  than 
thofe  of  greater  dimenfions.  Their  nefts,  accordingly, 
are  built  proportionally  warmer  and  deeper,  and  they  are 
lined  with  fofter  fubftances.  The  larger  birds,  of  courfe, 
can  leave  their  eggs  for  fome  time  with  impunity  ;  but 
the  fmaller  kinds  fit  mod  afliduoufly ;  for,  when  the  fe- 
male is  obliged  to  go  abroad  in  quell  of  food,  the  neft  is  - 
always  occupied  by  the  male.  When  a  neft  is  fmifhed, 
nothing  can  exceed  the  dexterity  of  both  male  and  female 
in  concealing  it  from  the  obfervation  of  man,  and  of  other  * 
deftru&ive  animals.  If  it  is  built  in  bufhes,  the  pliant 
branches  are  difpofcd  in  fuch  a  manner  as  to  hide  it  en- 
tirely 

*  Willoughby's  Ornithology,  pag.  98.     S. 


THE    PHILOSOPHY 

tirely  from  view.  To  conceal  her  retreat,  the  chaffinch 
covers  the  outfide  of  her  nefl  with  mofs,  which  is  com- 
monly of  the  fame  colour  with  the  bark  of  the  tree  on 
which  me  builds.  The  common  fwallow  builds  its  nefl 
on  the  tops  of  chimneys ;  and  the  martin  attaches  hers 
to  the  corners  of  windows,  or  under  the  eaves  of  houfes. 
Both  employ  the  fame  materials.  The  nefl  is  built  with 
mud  well  tempered  by  the  bill,  and  moiflened  with  water 
to  make  it  more  firmly  cohere  ;  and  the  mud  or  clay  is 
kept  flill  firmer  by  a  mixture  of  draw  or  grafs.  Within 
it  is  neatly  lined  with  feathers.  Willoughby,  on  the  au- 
thority of  Bontius,  informs  us,  4  That,  on  the  fea-coafl 
4  of  the  kingdom  of  China,  a  fort  of  fmall  party-coloured 
4  birds,  of  the  ihape  of  fwallows,  at  a  certain  feafon  of 
4  the  year,  viz.  their  breeding  time,  come  out  of  the  mid- 
4  land  country  to  the  rocks ;  and  from  the  foam  or  froth 
4  of  the  fea-water  dafhing  and  breaking  againfl  the  bot- 
6  torn  of  the  rocks,  gather  a  certain  clammy,  glutinous 
4  matter,  perchance  the  fperm  of  whales,  or  other  fifties, 
4  of  which  they  build  their  nefls,  wherein  they  lay  their 
4  eggs,  and  hatch  their  young.  Thefe  nefls  the  Chinefe 
4  pluck  from  the  rocks,  and  bring  them  in  great  numbers 
4  into  the  Eafl-Indies  to  fell ;  which  are  efleemed  by  glut- 
4  tons  great  delicacies,  who,  diffolving  them  in  chicken  or 
6  mutton  broth,  are  very  fond  of  them,  preferring  them 
4  far  before  oyflers,  mufhrooms,  or  other  dainty  and  lic- 
4  kerifh  morfels  which  mofl  gratify  the  palate. — Thefe 
4  nefls  are  of  a  hemifpherical  figure,  of  the  bignefs  of  a 
4  goofe-egg,  and  of  a  fubftance  refembling  ifmglafsV 

Mofl 

*  Willoughby's  Ornithology,  pag.  215.     S. The  reader,  who  is  defirous 

of  receiving  further  information  on  this  curious  fubjeft,  may  amufe  himfelf  by 
conftxlting  the  China  Illujlrata  of  the  learned  Kircher,  pag.  199,  and  Kaempfer,  in  his 
Amanitates  Exotica,  pag.  833.  Kircher  alfo  refers  to  two  Italian  authors,  P.  Daniel 
Bartolus  and  P.  Philippus  Marinus,  who  have  both  made  mention  of  thefe  efcu- 
lent  nefls.— The  author  of  the  China  llluftrata  fays,  that  fome  of  the  birds  which 
build  thefe  nefts  are  \\kejparrows,  and  that  others  resemble  Jiuattows.  Linnaeus, 
•who,  it  is  probable,  had  never  perufed  either  Kircher's  work,  or  thofe  of  the  two 
Italian  hiflorians,  whofe  names  I  have  juft  mentioned,  feems  to  fuppofe,  that  th'efe 
fingular  nefls  are  entirely  the  workmanihip  of  a  fpecies  of  fwallow,  which  he  has 
denominated  Hirundo  ejculenta.  It  is  defcribed  and  figured  in  the  Herbarium  Am- 
boincnfe,  of  Rumphius,  by  the  name  of  Capus  marina,  and  in  the  Ornitkologta  of 
Briflbn,  by  that  of  Hirundo  ripuria  cochinfinenfis,  vol.  2.  pag.  510.  t.  46.  f.  2.  A. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         293 

Mod  of  the  cloven-footed  water-fowls,  or  waders,  lay 
their  eggs  upon  the  ground.  But,  the  fpoon-bills  and  the 
common  heron  build  large  nefts  in  trees,  and  employ 
twigs  and  other  coarfe  materials  ;  and  the  ftorks  build  on 
churches,  or  on  the  tops  of  houfes.  Many  of  the  web- 
footed  fowls  lay  their  eggs  likewife  on  the  ground,  as 
the  terns,  and  fome  of  the  gulls  and  merganfers.  But 
ducks  pull  the  down  from  their  own  breads  to  afford  a 
warmer  and  more  comfortable  bed  for  their  young.  The 
auks,  the  guillemots,  and  the  puffins  or  coulternebs,  lay 
their  eggs  on  the  naked  fhelves  of  high  rocks.  The  pen- 
guins, for  the  fame  purpofe,  dig  large  and  deep  holes 
under  ground. 

It  is  not  unworthy  of  remark,  that  birds  uniformly 
proportion  the  dimenfions  of  their  nefts  to  the  number 
and  fize  of  the  young  to  be  produced.  Every  fpecies 
lays  nearly  a  determined  number  of  eggs.  But,  if  one 
be  each  day  abftraded  from  the  neft,  the  bird  continues 
to  lay  daily  more  till  her  number  is  completed.  Dr.  Lif- 
ter, by  this  practice,  made  a  fwallow  lay  no  lefs  than 
nineteen  eggs. 

The  habitations  of  Infefts  are  next  to  be  confidered. 
On  this  branch  of  the  fubjecl:,  we  mall  firft  give  fome 
examples  of  abodes  conftru&ed  by  folitary  workers,  and 
next  of  thofe  habitations  which  are  executed  by  afifocia- 
ted  numbers. 

In  feveral  preceding  parts  of  this  work,  and  particular- 
ly in  the  chapter  upon  Inftind,  the  reader  will  find  fome 
inftances  of  the  fkill  and  induftry  exhibited  by  infeds  for 
the  convenient  lodging  and  protection  of  their  young. 
Thefe  it  is  linnecefiary  to  repeat.  We  mall  therefore  pro- 
ceed  to  give  fome  examples  of  a  different  kind. 

There  are  feveral  fpecies  of  bees  diflinguimed  by  the 
appellation  of  folitary,  becaufe  they  do  not  aflbciate  to 
carry  on  any  joint  operations.  Of  this  kind  is  the  ma- 
fan-bee,  fo  called  becaufe  it  builds  a  habitation  compofed 
of  fand  and  mortar.  The  nefts  of  this  bee  are  fixed  to 
the  walls  of  houfes,  and,  when  finifhed,  have  the  appear- 
ance of  irregular  prominences  arifing  from  dirt  or  clay 
accidentally  thrown  againft  a  wall  or  ftone  by  the  feet  of 

horfes. 


THE    PHILOSOPHY 

horfes.  Thefe  prominences  are  not  fo  remarkable  as  to 
attract  attention ;  but,  when  the  external  coat  is  remov- 
ed, their  ftru&ure  is  difcovered  to  be  truly  admirable. 
The  interior  part  confifts  of  an  aflemblage  of  different 
cells,  each  of  which  affords  a  convenient  lodgement  to 
a  white  worm,  pretty  fimilar  to  thofe  produced  by  the 
honey-bee.  Here  they  remain  till  they  have  undergone 
all  their  metamorphofes.  In  conftru&ing  this  neft,  which 
is  a  work  of  great  labour  and  dexterity,  the  female  is  the 
fole  operator.  She  receives  no  affiftance  from  the  male. 
The  manner  in  which  the  female  mafon-bees  build  their 
nefts,  is  the  mod  curious  branch  of  their  hiftory. 

After  choofing  a  part  of  a  wall  on  which  fhe  is  refolv- 
ed  to  fix  an  habitation  for  her  future  progeny,  fhe  goes 
in  queft  of  proper  materials.  The  neft  to  be  conftruded 
muft  confift  of  a  fpecies  of  mortar,  of  which  fand  is  the 
bafis.  She  knows,  like  human  builders,  that  every  kind 
of  fand  is  not  equally  proper  for  making  good  mortar. 
She  goes,  therefore,  to  a  bed  of  fand,  and  felecls,  grain 
by  grain,  the  kind  which  is  beft  to  anfwer  her  purpofe. 
With  her  teeth,  which  are  as  large  and  as  ftrong  as  thofe 
of  the  honey-bee,  fhe  examines  and  brings  together  fe- 
veral  grains.  But  fand  alone  will  not  make  mortar.  Re- 
courfe  muft  be  had  to  a  cement  fimilar  to  the  flacked  lime 
employed  by  mafons.  Our  bee  is  unacquainted  with  lime, 
but  fhe  poffeffes  an  equivalent  in  her  own  body.  From 
her  mouth  me  throws  out  a  vifcid  liquor,  with  which 
flie  moiftens  the  firft  grain  pitched  upon.  To  this  grain 
fhe  cements  a  fecond,  which  fhe  moiftens  in  the  fame 
manner,  and  to  the  former  two  fhe  attaches  a  third,  and 
fo  on,  till  fhe  has  formed  a  mafs  as  large  as  the  fhot  ufu- 
ally  employed  to  kill  hares.  This  mafs  fhe  carries  off  in 
her  teeth  to  the  plate  fhe  had  chofen  for  erecting  her 
neft,  and  makes  it  the  foundation  of  the  firft  cell.  In 
this  manner  flie  labours  incefTantly  till  the  whole  cells  are 
completed,  a  work  which  is  generally  accomplifhed  in 
five  or  fix  days.  All  the  cells  are  fimilar,  and  nearly  equal 
in  dimenfions.  Before  they  are  covered,  their  figure  re- 
fembles  that  of  a  thimble.  She  never  begins  to  make  a 
fecond  till  the  firft  be  finifhed.  Each  cell  is  about  an  inch 

high, 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          295 

high)  and  nearly  half  an  inch  in  diameter.  But  the  la- 
bour of  building  is  not  the  only  one  this  female  bee  has 
to  undergo.  When  a  cell  has  been  raifed  to  one  half  or 
two  thirds  of  its  height,  another  occupation  commences. 
She  feems  to  know  the  quantity  of  food  that  will  be  ne- 
ceflary  to  nourifh  the  young  that  is  to  proceed  from  the 
egg,  from  its  exclufion  till  it  acquires  its  full  growth,  and 
jpafles  into  the  chryfalis  ftate.  The  food  which  is  prepar- 
ed for  the  fupport  of  the  young  worm  confifts  of  the  fa- 
rina or  powder  of  flowers,  diluted  with  honey,  which 
forms  a  kind  of  pap.  Before  the  cell  is  entirely  finifhed, 
the  mafon-bee  collects  from  the  flowers,  and  depofits  in 
the  cell,  a  large  quantity  of  farina,  and  afterwards  dif- 
gorges  upon  it  as  much  honey  as  dilutes  it,  and  forms  it 
into  a  kind  of  pafte,  or  fyrup.  When  this  operation  is 
performed,  (he  completes  her  cell,  and,  after  depofiting 
an  egg  in  it,  covers  the  mouth  of  it  with  the  fame  mortar 
me  ufes  in  building  her  neft.  The  egg  is  now  inclofed 
on  all  fides  in  a  walled  habitation  hermetically  fealed. 
A  fmall  quantity  of  air,  however,  gets  admiflion  to  the 
worm,  otherwise  it  could  not  exift.  Reaumur  difcover- 
cd  that  air  a&ually  penetrated  through  this  feemingly- 
compact  mafon-work. 

As  foon  as  the  firft  cell  is  completed,  the  mafon-bec 
lays  the  foundation  of  another.  In  the  fame  neft  me 
often  conftruclis  feven  or  eight  cells,  and  fometimes  only 
three  or  four.  She  places  them  near  each  other,  but  not 
in  any  regular  order.  This  induftrious  animal,  after  all 
her  cells  are  conftru&ed,  filled  with  provifions,  and  feal- 
ed, covers  the  whole  with  an  envelope  of  the  fame  mortar, 
which,  when  dry,  is  as  hard  as  (lone.  The  neft  now  is 
commonly  of  an  oblong  or  roundiih  figure,  and  the  ex- 
ternal  cover  is  compofed  of  coarfer  fand  than  that  of 
the  cells.  As  the  nefts  are  almoft  as  durable  as  the  walls 
on  which  they  are  placed,  they  are  often,  in  the  follow- 
ing feafon,  occupied  and  repaired  by  a  ftranger  bee. 
Though  inclofed  with  two  hard  walls,  when  the  fly  emer- 
ges from  the  chryfalis  ftate,  it  firft  gnaws  with  its  teeth 
a  paflage  through  the  wall  that  fealed  up  the  mouth  of 
its  cell  j  afterwards,  with  the  fajne  inftruments,  it  pierces 

the 


296  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

the  ftill  ftronger  and  more  compact  cover  which  invelts 
the  whole  neft ;  at  laft  it  efcapes  into  the  open  air,  and, 
if  a  female,  in  a  fhort  time,  conftruds  a  neft  of  the  fame 
kind  with  that  which  the  mother  had  made.  To  all  thefe 
facts,  Du  Hamel,  Reaumur,  and  many  other  naturaliils 
of  credit  and  reputation,  have  been  repeatedly  eye-wit- 
nefles. 

From  the  hardnefs  of  the  materials  with  which  the 
mafon-bee  conftructs  her  neft,  from  the  induftry  and  dex- 
terity me  employs  to  protect  her  progeny  from  enemies 
of  every  kind,  one  mould  naturally  imagine  that  the 
young  worms  were  in  perfect  fafety,  and  that  their  caftle 
was  impregnable.  But,  notwithftanding  all  thefe  favour- 
able precautions,  the  young  of  the  mafon-bee  are  often 
devoured  by  the  inftinctive  dexterity  of  certain  fpecies  of 
four-winged  infects,  diftinguifhed  by  the  name  of  ichneu- 
mon flies.  Thefe  flies,  when  the  mafon-bee  has  nearly 
completed  a  cell,  and  filled  it  with  provifions,  depofit 
their  own  eggs  in  her  cell.  After  the  eggs  of  the  ichneu- 
mon flies  are  hatched,  their  worms  devour  not  only  the 
provifions  laid  up  by  the  mafon-bee,  but  even  her  pro- 
geny whom  me  had  laboured  fo  hard,  and  with  fo  much 
art  and  ingenuity,  to  protect.  But  the  mafon-bee  has  an 
enemy  ftill  more  formidable.  A  certain  fly  employs  the 
fame  ftratagem  of  infmuating  an  egg  into  one  of  her  cells 
before  it  is  completed.  From  this  egg  proceeds  a  ftrong 
and  rapacious  worm,  armed  with  prodigious  fangs.  The 
devaftations  of  this  worm  are  not  confined  to  one  cell. 
He  often  pierces  through  each  cell  in  the  neft,  and  fuc- 
ceflively  devours  both  the  mafon-worms,  and  the  provi- 
fions fo  anxioufly  laid  up  for  their  fupport  by  the  mother. 
This  ftranger-worm  is  afterwards  transformed  into  a  fine 
beetle,  who  is  enabled  to  pierce  the  neft,  and  to  make 
his  efcape. 

The  operations  of  another  fpecies  of  folitary  bees, 
called  wood-piercers^  merit  attention.  Thefe  bees  are 
larger  than  the  queens  of  the  honey-bee.  Their  bodies 
are  fmooth,  except  the  fides,  which  are  covered  with 
hair.  In  the  fpring,  they  frequent  gardens,  and  fearch 
for  rotten,  or  at  leaft  dead  wood,  in  order  to  make  a  ha- 
bitation 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         297 

bitation  for  their  young.  When  a  female  of  this  fpecies, 
for  me  receives  no  affiitance  from  the  male,  has  feletted 
a  piece  of  wood,  or  a  decayed  tree,  me  commences  her 
labour  by  making  a  hole  in  it,  which  is  generally  directed 
toward  the  axis  of  the  tree.  When  me  has  advanced 
about  half  an  inch,  me  alters  the  direction  of  the  hole, 
and  conducts  it  nearly  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  wood. 
The  fize  of  her  body  requires  that  this  hole  fhould  have 
a  confiderable  diameter.  It  is  often  fo  large  as  to  admit 
the  finger  of  a  man,  and  it  fometimes  extends  from 
twelve  to  fifteen  inches  in  length.  If  the  thicknefs  of 
t  b  wood  permits,  me  makes  three  or  four  of  thefe  long 
holes  in  its  interior  part.  M.  de  Reaumur  found  three 
of  thefe  parallel  holes  in  an  old  efpalier  pod.  Their  di- 
ameters exceeded  half  an  inch.  This  labour,  for  a  fmgle 
bee,  is  prodigious ;  but,  in  executing  it,  ilie  confumes 
weeks,  and  even  months. 

Around  the  foot  of  a  poll  or  piece  of  wood  where  one 
of  thefe  bees  are  working,  little  heaps  of  timber-dud  are 
always  found  lying  on  the  ground.  Thefe  heaps  daily 
increafe  in  magnitude,  and  ^the  particles  of  dud  are  as 
large  as  thofe  produced  by  a  hand-faw.  The  two  teeth 
with  which  the  animal  is  provided  are  the  only  indru- 
ments  me  employs  in  making  fuch  confiderable  perfora- 
tions. Each  tooth  confifls  of  a  folid  piece  of  fhell,  which 
in  fhape  refcmbles  an  auger.  It  is  convex  above,  concave 
below,  and  terminates  in  a  fharp  but  ftrong  point. 

Thefe  long  holes  are  defigned  for  lodgings  to  the  worms 
that  are  to  proceed  from  the  eggs  which  the  bee  is  foon 
to  depofit  in  them.  But,  after  the  'holes  are  finifhed, 
her  labour  is  by  no  means  at  an  end.  The  eggs  mud  not 
be  mingled,  or  piled  above  each  other.  Every  feparate 
worm  mud  have  a  diftin6t  apartment,  without  any  com- 
munication with' the  others.  Each  long  hole  or  tube, 
accordingly,  is  only  the  outer  walls  of  a  houfe  which  is 
to  confift  of  many  chambers  ranged  one  above  another. 
A  hole  of  about  twelve  inches  in  length  (he  divides  into 
ten  or  twelve  feparate  apartments,  each  of  which  is  about 
an  inch  high.  The  roof  of  the  lowed  room  is  the  floor  of 
the  fecond,  and  fo  on  to  the  uppermoft.  Each  floor  is  about 

Pp  the 


298  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

the  thicknefs  of  a  French  crown.  The  floors  or  divifiona 
are  compofed  of  particles  of  wood  cemented  together  by 
a  glutinous  fubftance  from  the  animal's  mouth.  In  mak- 
ing a  floor,  ihe  commences  with  gluing  an  annular  plate 
of  wood-duft  round  the  internal  circumference  of  the 
cavity.  To  this  plate  me  attaches  a  fecond,  to  the  fecond 
a  third,  and  to  the  third  a  fourth,  till  the  whole  floor  is 
completed.  The  undermoft  cell  requires  only  a  roof,  and 
this  roof  is  a  floor  to  the  fecond,  &c. 

We  have  hitherto  defcribed  the  wonderful  afliduity  of 
this  animal  in  conftructing  her  cells.  But  this  operation, 
though  great,  and  feemingly-fuperior  to  the  powers  of  a 
creature  fo  fmall,  is  not  her  only  labour.  Before  roof- 
ing in  the  firft  cell,  me  fills  it  with  a  pafte  or  pap,  com- 
pofed  of  the  farina  of  flowers  moiftened  with  honey.  The 
quantity  of  pafte  is  equal  to  the  dimenfions  of  the  cell, 
which  is  about  an  inch  high,  and  half  an  inch  in  diame- 
ter. Into  this  pafte,  which  is  to  nourifh  the  future  worm, 
fhe  depofits  an  egg.  Immediately  after  this  operation, 
flie  begins  to  form  a  roof,  which  not  only  inclofes  the 
fir  ft  cell,  but  ferves  as  a  floor  to  the  fecond.  The  fecond 
cell  fhe  likewife  fills  with  pafte,  depofits  an  egg,  and  then 
covers  the  whole  with  another  roof.  In  this  manner  fhe 
proceeds,  till  fhe  has  divided  the  whole  tube  into  fepa- 
rate  cells.  A  fingle  tube  frequently  contains  from  ten 
to  a  dozen  of  thefe  cells.  When  the  cells  are  all  inclofed, 
the  bufmefs  of  this  laborious  bee  is  fmifhed,  and  fhe 
takes  no  more  charge  of  her  future  progeny.  The  at- 
tention and  folicitude  beftowed  by  many  other  animals, 
in  rearing  their  young,  are  exerted  after  birth.  But,  in 
the  wood-piercing  bee,  as  well  as  in  many  other  infects, 
this  inftinctive  attachment  is  reverfed.  All  her  labours 
and  all  her  cares  are  exerted  before  (he  either  fees  her 
offspring,  or  knows  that  they  are  to  exift.  But,  after 
the  defcription  that  has  been  given  of  her  amazing  o- 
perations,  fhe  will  not  be  confidered  as  an  unnatural 
mother.  With  aftonifhing  induftry  and  perfeverance,  fhe 
not  only  furnifhes  her  young  with  fafe  and  convenient 
lodgings,  but  lays  up  for  them  ftores  of  provifions  luffi- 
cient  to  fupport  them  till  their  final  metamorphofis  into 

flies, 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.        299 

flies,  when  the  new  females  perform  the  fame  almoft  in- 
credible operations  for  the  protection  and  fuftenance  of 
their  own  offspring.  When  the  young  worm  is  hatched, 
•it  has  fcarcely  fufficient  fpace  to  turn  itfelf  in  the  cell, 
•which  is  almoft  entirely  filled  with  the  pappy  fubftance 
formerly  mentioned.  But,  as  this  fubftance  is  gradually 
devoured  by  the  worm,  the  fpace  in  the  cell  neceffarily 
enlarges  in  proportion  to  the  growth  and  magnitude  of 
the  animal. 

We  are  informed  by  M.  de  Reaumur  *,  that  M.  Pitot 
furnifhed  him  with  a  piece  of  wood,  not  exceeding  an 
inch  and  a  half  in  diameter,  which  contained  the  cells  of 
a  wood-piercing  bee.  He  cut  off  as  much  of  the  wood  as 
was  fufficient  to  expofe  two  of  the  cells  to  view,  in  each 
of  which  was  a  worm.  The  aperture  he  had  made,  to 
prevent  the  injuries  of  the  air,  he  clofed,  by  pafting  on  a 
bit  of  glafs.  The  cells  were  then  almoft  entirely  filled 
with  pafte.  The  two  worms  were  exceedingly  fmall,and, 
of  courfe,  occupied  but  little  fpace  between  the  walls  of 
the  cells  and  the  mafs  of  pafte.  As  the  animals  increafed 
in  fize,  the  pafte  daily  diminifhed.  He  began  to  obferve 
them  on  the  i2th  day  of  June  ;  and,  on  the  2yth  of  the 
fame  month,  the  pafte  in  each  cell  was  nearly  confumed, 
and  the  worm,  folded  in  two,  occupied  the  greater  part 
of  its  habitation.  On  the  2d  of  July,  the  provifions  of 
both  worms  were  entirely  exhaufted  ;  and,  befide  the 
worms  themfelves,  there  remained  in  the  cells  only  a  few 
fmall,  black,  oblong  grains  of  excrement.  The  five  or 
fix  following  days  they  fafted,  which  feemed  to  be  a  ne- 
ceffary  abftinence,  during  which  they  were  greatly  agitat- 
ed. They  often  bended  their  bodies,  and  elevated  and 
depreffed  their  heads.  Thefe  movements  were  prepara- 
tory to  the  great  change  the  animals  were  about  to  under- 
go. Between  the  yth  and  8th  of  the  fame  month,  they 
threw  off  their  fkins,  and  were  metamorphofed  into 
nymphs.  On  the  3<Dth  of  July,  thefe  nymphs  were  trans- 
formed into  flies  fimilar  to  their  parents.  In  a  range  of 
cells,  the  worms  are  of  different  ages,  and,  of  courfe,  of 
different  fizes.  Thofe  in  the  lower  cells  are  older  than 

tbofe 

*  Tom.  11.  pag.  58.  izmoedit.    9. 


3oo  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

thofe  in  the  fuperior  ;  becaufe,  after  the  bee  has  filled 
with  pafte  and  inclofed  its  firil  cell,  a  confiderable  time 
is  re'quifite  to  collecl  provifions,  and  to  form  partitions  for 
every,  fucceffive  and  fuperior  cell.  The  former,  there- 
fore, mud  be  transformed  into  nymphs  and  flies  before 
the  latter.  Thefe  circumdances  are  apparently  forefeen 
by  the  common  mother  ;  for,  if  the  undermoft  worm, 
which  is  olded,  and  fooned  transformed,  were  to  force 
its  way  upward,  which  it  could  eafily  do,  it  would  not 
only  difmrb,  but  infallibly  dedroy,  all  thofe  lodged  in  the 
fuperior  cells.  But  Nature  has  wifely  prevented  this  de- 
vaftation ;  for  the  head  of  the  nymph,  and  consequently 
of  the  fly,  is  always  placed  in  a  downward  direction.  Its 
firft  indinctive  movements  mud,  therefore,  be  in  the  fame 
direction.  That  the  young  flies  may  efcape  from  their  re- 
fpe&ive  cells,  the  mother  digs  a  hole  at  the  bottom  of  the 
long  tube,  which  makes  a  communication  with  the  un- 
dermoft cell  and  the  open  air.  Sometimes  a  fimilar  paf- 
fage  is  made  near  the  middle  of  the  tube.  By  this  con- 
trivance, as  all  the  flies  inftin&ively  endeavour  to  cut  their 
way  downward,  they  find  an  eafy  and  convenient  paffage  ; 
for  they  have  only  to  pierce  the  floor  of  their  cells,  which 
they  readily  perform  with  their  teeth. 

Another  fmall  fpecies  of  folitary  bees  dig  holes  in  the 
earth  to  make  a  convenient  habitation  for  their  young. 
Their  neils  are  cornpofed  of  cylindrical  cells  fixed  to  one 
another,  and  each  of  them,  in  figure,  refembles  a  thimble. 
Their  bottom,  of  courfe,  is  convex  and  rounded.  The 
bottom  of  the  fecond  is  inferted  into  the  entry  of  the 
firil ;  and  the  entry  of  the  fecond  receives  the  bottom  of 
the  third. '  They  are  not  all  of  the  fame  length.  Some 
of  them  are  five  lines  long,  others  only  four,  and  their 
diameters  feidom  exceed  two  lines.  Sometimes  only  two, 
of  thefe  ceils  are  joined  together  ;  and,  at  other  times, 
we  find  three  or  four,  which  form  a  kind  of  cylinder. 
This  cylinder  is  compofed  of  alternate  -bands  of  two  dif- 
ferent colours  :  Thofe  of  the  narrowed,  at  the  juncture 
of  two  cells,  aie  white,  and  thofe  of  the  broaded  are  of  a 
reddifh  brown.  The  cells  confid  of  a  number  of  fine 
membranes,  formed  of  a  glutinous  and  tranfparent  fub- 

dance 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  301 

Itance  from  the  animal's  mouth.  Each  cell  our  bee  fills 
with  the  farina  of  flowers  diluted  with  honey,  and  in  this 
paile  me  depofits  an  egg.  She  then  covers  the  cell,  by 
gluing  to  its  mouth  a  fine  cellular  fubftance  taken  from 
the  leaves  of  fome  plant  ;  and  in  this  manner  me  pro- 
ceeds till  her  cylindrical  neft  is  completed.  The  worms 
which  are  hatched  from  the  eggs  feed  upon  the  pafte,  fo 
carefully  laid  up  for  them  by  the  mother,  till  they  are 
transformed  into  flies  fimilar  to  their  parents. 

Among  wafps,  as  well  as  bees,  there  are  folitary  fpecies, 
which  carry^on  no  joint  operations.  Thefe  folitary  wafps 
are  not  iefs  ingenious  in  conflrucling  proper  habitations 
for  their  young,  nor  Iefs  provident  in  laying  up  for  them 
a  (lore  of  nourifhment  fufficient  to  fupport  them  till  they 
are  transformed  into  flies,  or  have  become  perfect  ani- 
mals*. But,  to  give  a  detailed  defcription  of  their  ope- 
rations would  lead  us  into  a  prolixity  of  which  the  plan 
of  our  work  does  not  admit. 

On  this  fubjecl:,  however,  it  cannot  efcape  obfervation, 
that  all  the  fagacity  and  laborious  induftry  exerted  in  the 
various  inftances  of  animal  architecture  above  defcribed, 
have  one  uniform  tendency.  They  are  all  defigned  for 
the  multiplication,  protection,  and  nourifhment  of  off- 
fpring.  But  many  of  them  are  fo  artful,  and  require 
fuch  perfevering  labour,  that  the  human  mind  is  bewil- 
dered when  it  attempts  to  account  for  them.  If  we  attend 
to  the  operations  of  quadrupeds,  of  birds,  and  of  infects, 
mod  of  them,  like  pregnant  women,  feem  to  know, 
from  their  own  feelings,  and  forefight,  not  only  their 
prefent  condition,  but  what  futurity  is  to  produce.  To 
folve  this  problem,  recourfe  has  been  had  by  Des  Cartes, 
by  Buffon,  and  by  other  philofophers,  to  conformation 
of  body  and  mechanical  impulfe.  Their  reafonings,  how- 
ever, though  often  ingenious,  involve  the  fubjecl:  in  ten- 
fold obfcurity.  We  can  hardly  fuppofe  that  the  animals 
actually  forefee  what  is  to  happen,  becaufe,  at  firft,  they 
have  not  had  even  the  aid  of  experience ;  and,  particu- 
larly in  fome  of  the  infed:  tribes,  the  parents  are  dead 
before  their  young  are  produced.  Pure  inflinds  of  this 

kind, 

*  See  page  128.     S. 


3o2  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

kind,  therefore,  muft  be  referred  to  another  fource.  In 
a  chain  of  reafoning  concerning  the  operations  of  Na- 
ture, fuch  is  the  confutation  of  our  minds,  that  we  are 
under  the  neceflity  of  reforting  to  an  ultimate  caufe. 
What  that  caufe  is,  it  is  the  highefl  prefumption  in  man 
to  pretend  to  define.  But,  though  we  mult  forever  re- 
main ignorant  of  the  caufe,  we  are  enabled  to  trace,  and 
even  to  underfland,  partially,  fome  of  the  effects ;  and,  from 
thefe  effects,  we  perceive  the  mofl  confummate  wifdom,  the 
moft  elegant  and  perfect  contrivances  to  accomplifh  the 
multifarious  and  wonderful  intentions  of  Nature.  In  con- 
templating the  operations  of  animals,  from  man  down  to 
the  feemingly  mofl  contemptible  infect,  we  are  neceffarily 
compelled  to  refer  them  to  pure  inflincts,  or  original 
qualities  of  mind,  variegated  by  Nature  according  as  the 
neceflities,  prefervation,  and  continuation  of  the  different 
fpecies  require.  Let  any  man  try  to  proceed  a  flep  farther, 
and,  however  he  may  deceive  himfelf,  and  flatter  his  own 
vanity,  he  muft  find,  at  lafl,  that  he  is  clouded  in  obfcu- 
rity,  and  that  men  who  have  a  more  correct  and  unpre- 
judiced mode  of  thinking  will  brand  him  with  abfurdity, 
and  of  acting  in  direct  oppofition  to  the  conflitution  and 
frame  of  the  human  mind. 

I  {hall  now  give  fome  examples  of  the  operations  of 
affociating-infects,  who  conftruct  habitations  by  exerting 
a  common  and  mutual  labour. 

The  (kill  and  dexterity  of  the  honey-bees,  difplayed  in 
the  conduction  of  their  combs  or  nefts,  have  at  all  times 
called  forth  the  admiration  of  mankind.  They  are  com- 
pofed  of  cells  regularly  applied  to  each  others  fides. 
Thefe  cells  are  uniform  hexagons  or  fix-fided  figures. 
In  a  bee-hive,  every  part  is  arranged  with  fuch  fymmetry, 
and  fo  finely  finifhed,  that,  if  limited  to  the  fame  mate- 
rials, the  mofl  expert  workman  would  find  himfelf  un- 
qualified to  conftruct  a  fimilar  habitation,  or  rather  a 
fimilar  city. 

Mofl  Natural  Hiftorians  have  celebrated  bees  for  their 
wifdom,  for  the  perfection  and  harmony  of  their  repub- 
lican government,  and  for  their  perfevering  induflry  and 
wonderful  ceconomy.  All  thefe  fplendid  talents,  however, 

the 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          303 

the  late  ingenious  Count  de  Buffon  has  endeavoured  to 
perfuade  us,  are  only  refults  of  pure  mechanifm.  But 
this  is  not  the  proper  place  to  enter  into  a  difcuflion  of 
this  point.  It  will  fall  more  naturally  to  be  treated  of 
when  we  come  to  defcribe  the  focieties  eftablifhed  among 
different  gregarious  animals.  We  mall,  therefore,  at  pre- 
fent,  confine  ourfelves  chiefly  to  the  mode  in  which  bees 
conftrucl  their  habitations. 

In  the  formation  of  their  combs,  bees  feem  to  refolve 
a  problem  which  would  not  be  a  little  puzzling  to  fome 
geometers,  namely,  A  quantity  of  wax  being  given,  to 
make  of  it  equal  and  fimilar  cells  of  a  determined  capacity, 
but  of  the  largefl  fize  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of 
matter  employed,  and  difpofed  in  fuch  a  manner  as  to 
occupy  in  the  hive  the  leaft  poflible  fpace.  Every  part 
of  this  problem  is  completely  executed  by  the  bees.  By 
applying  hexagonal  cells  to  each  other's  fides,  no  void 
fpaces  are  left  between  them ;  and,  though  the  fame  end 
might  be  accomplished  by  other  figures,  yet  they  would 
neceffarily  require  a  greater  quantity  of  wax.  Befides, 
hexagonal  cells  are  better  fitted  to  receive  the  cylindrical 
bodies  of  thefe  infects.  A  comb  confifts  of  two  flrata  of 
cells  applied  to  each  other's  ends.  This  arrangement  both 
faves  room  in  the  hive,  and  it  gives  a  double  entry  into 
the  cells  of  which  the  comb  is  compofed.  As  a  farther 
faving  of  wax,  and  preventing  void  fpaces,  the  bafes  of 
thefe  cells  in  one  flratum  of  a  comb  ferve  for  bafes  to  the 
oppofite  flratum.  In  a  word,  the  more  minutely  the  con- 
ftru&ion  of  thefe  cells  are  examined,  the  more  will  the 
admiration  of  the  obferver  be  excited.  The  walls  of  the 
cells  are  fo  extremely  thin,  that  their  mouths  would  be 
in  danger  of  fullering  by  the  frequent  entering  and  iffu- 
ing  of  the  bees.  To  prevent  this  difafter,  they  make  a 
kind  of  ring  round  the  margin  of  each  cell,  and  this  ring 
is  three  or  four  times  thicker  than  the  walls. 

It  is  difficult  to  perceive,  even  with  the  afliftance  of 
glafs-hives,  the  manner  in  which  bees  operate  when  con- 
flru&ing  their  ceils.  They  are  fo  eager  to  afford  mutual 
afliftance,  and,  for  this  purpofe,  fo  many  of  them  crowd 
together,  and  are  perpetually  fucceeding  each  other,  that 

their 


THE    PHILOSOPHY 

their  individual  operations  can  feldom  be  (Mindly  ob- 
ferved.  It  has,  however,  been  plainly  difcovered,  i-Lut 
their  two  teeth  are  the  only  inftruments  they  employ  in 
modelling  and  polifhing  the  wax.  With  a  little  patience 
and  attention,  we  perceive  cells  juft  begun  :  We  likewife 
remark  the  quicknefs  with  which  a  bee  moves  its  teeth 
againft  a  fmall  portion  of  the  cell.  This  portion  the  ani- 
mal, by  repeated  ftrokes  on  each  fide,  fmooths,  renders 
compact,  and  reduces  to  a  proper  thinnefs  of  confidence. 
While  fome  of  the  hive  are  lengthening  their  hexagonal 
tubes,  others  are  laying  the  foundations  of  new  ones. 
In  certain  circumftances,  when  extremely  hurried,  they  do 
not  complete  their  new  cells,  but  leave  them  imperfect  till 
they  have  begun  a  number  fufficient  for  their  prefent  exi- 
gencies. When  a  bee  puts  its  head  a  little  way  into  a  cell, 
we  eafily  perceive  it  fcraping  the  walls  with  the  points  of 
its  teeth,  in  order  to  detach  fuch  ufelefs  and  irregular 
fragments  as  may  have  been  left  in  the  work.  Of  thefe 
fragments  the  bee  forms  a  ball  about  the  fize  of  a  pin- 
head,  comes  out  of  the  cell,  and  carries  this  wax  to  an- 
other part  of  the  work  where  it  is  needed.  It  no  fooner 
leaves  the  cell  than  it  is  fucceeded  by  another  bee,  which 
performs  the  fame  office,  and  in  this  manner  the  work  is 
fucceffively  carried  on  till  the  cell  is  completely  polifhed. 
The  cells  of  bees  are  defigned  for  different  purpofes. 
Some  of  them  are  employed  for  the  accumulation  and  pre- 
fervation  of  honey.  In  others,  the  female  depofits  her 
eggs,  and  from  thefe  eggs  worms. are  hatched,  which  re- 
main in  the  cells  till  their  final  transformation  into  flies. 
The  drones,  or  males,  are  larger  than  the  common,  or 
working,  bees ;  and  the  queen,  or  mother  of  the  hive,  is 
much  larger  than  either.  A  cell  deftined  for  the  lodge- 
ment of  a  male  or  female  worm  muft,  therefore,  be  confi- 
derably  larger  than  the  cells  of  the  fmaller  working  bees. 
The  number  of  cells  deftined  for  the  reception  of  the 
working  bees  far  exceeds  thofe  in  which  the  males  are 
lodged.  The  honey-cells  are  always  made  deeper  and 
more  capacious  than  the  others.  When  the  honey  col- 
le&ed  is  fo  abundant  that  the  veifels  cannot  contain  it,  the 
bees  lengthen,  and  of  courfe  deepen,  the  honey-cells. 

Their 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          305 

Their  mode  of  working,  and  the  difpofition  and  divi- 
fion  of  their  labour,  when  put  into  an  empty  hive,  do 
much  honour  to  the  fagacity  of  bees.  They  immediately 
begin  to  lay  the  foundations  of  their  combs,  which  they 
execute  with  furprifmg  quicknefs  and  alacrity.  Soon  af- 
ter they  begin  to  conftrucl:  one  comb,  they  divide  into 
two  or  three  companies,  each  of  which,  in  different  parts 
of  the  hive,  is  occupied  with  the  fame  operations.  By 
this  divifion  of  labour,  a  greater  number  of  bees  have  an 
opportunity  of  being  employed  at  the  fame  time,  and, 
confequently,  the  common  work  is  fooner  finifhed.  The 
combs  are  generally  arranged  in  a  direction  parallel  to 
each  other.  An  interval,  or  flreet,  between  the  combs  is 
always  left,  that  the  bees  may  have  a  free  paffage,  and  an 
eafy  communication  with  the  different  combs  in  the  hive. 
Thefe  ftreets  are  juft  wide  enough  to  allow  two  bees  to 
pafs  one  another.  Befide  thefe  parallel  flreets,  to  fhorten 
their  journey  when  working,  they  leave  feveral  round  crofs 
pafiages,  which  are  always  covered. 

Hitherto  we  have  chiefly  taken  notice  of  the  manner 
in  which  bees  conftrucl  and  polifh  their  cells,  without 
treating  of  the  materials  they  employ.  We  have  not 
marked  the  difference  between  the  crude  matter  collected 
from  flowers  and  the  true  wax.  Every  body  knows  that 
bees  carry  into  their  hives,  by  means  of  their  hind  thighs, 
great  quantities  of  the  farina,  or  duft,  of  flowers.  After 
many  experiments  made  by  Reaumur,  with  a  view  to  dif- 
cover  whether  this  duft  contained  real  wax,  he  was  obliged 
to  acknowledge,  that  he  could  never  find  that  wax  formed 
any  part  of  its  compofition.  He  at  length  difcovered,  that 
wax  was  not  a  fubftance  produced  by  the  mixture  of  fari- 
na with  any  glutinous  fubftance,  nor  by  trituration,  or 
any  mechanical  operation.  By  long  and  attentive  obfer- 
vation,  he  found  that  the  bees  actually  eat  the  farina  which 
they  fo  induftrioufly  collect ;  and  that  this  farina,  by  an 
animal  procefs,  is  converted  into  wax.  This  digeftive 
procefs,  which  is  neceifary  to  the  formation  of  wax,  is 
carried  on  in  the  fecond  ftomach,  and  perhaps  in  the  in- 
teftines  of  bees.  After  knowing  the  place  where  this 
operation  is  performed-  chymifts  will  probably  allow,  that 


306  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

it  is  equally  difficult  to  make  real  wax  with  the  farina  of 
flowers,  as  to  make  chyle  with  animal  or  vegetable  fubflan-. 
ces,  a  work  which  is  daily  executed  by  our  own  ftomach 
and  inteftines,  and  by  thofe  of  other  animals.  Reaumur 
likewife  difcovered,  that  all  the  cells  in  a  hive  were  not 
deftined  for  the  reception  of  honey,  and  for  depofiting 
the  eggs  of  the  female,  but  that  fome  of  them  were  em- 
ployed as  receptacles  for  the  farina  of  flowers,  a  fpecies 
of  food  that  bees  find  neceffary  for  the  formation  of  wax, 
which  is  the  great  bafis  and  raw  material  of  all  their  cu-» 
rious  operations.  When  a  bee  comes  to  the  hive  with  its 
thighs  filled  with  farina,  it  is  often  met  near  the  entrance 
by  fome  of  its  companions,  who  firil  take  off  the  load, 
and  then  devour  the  provifions  fo  kindly  brought  to  them. 
But,  when  none  of  the  bees  employed  in  the  hive  are 
hungry  for  this  fpecies  of  food,  the  .carriers  of  the  farina 
depofit  their  loads  in  cells  prepared  for  that  purpofe.  To 
thefe  cells  the  bees  refort,  when  the  weather  is  fo  bad 
that  they  cannot  venture  to  go  to  the  fields  in  queft  of 
frefh  provifions.  The  carrying  bees,  however,  commonly 
enter  the  hive  loaded  with  farina.  They  walk  along  the 
combs  beating  and  making  a  noife  with  their  wings.  By 
thefe  movements  they  feem  to  announce  their  arrival  to 
their  companions.  No  fooner  has  a  loaded  bee  made 
thefe  movements,  than  three  or  four  of  thofe  within  leave 
their  work,  come  up  to  it,  and  firfl  take  off  its  load,  and 
then  eat  the  materials  it  has  brought.  As  a  farther  evi- 
dence that  the  bees  actually  eat  the  farina  of  flowers, 
when  the  ftomach  and  inteflines  are  laid  open,  they  are 
often  found  to  be  filled  with  this  dull,  the  grains  of  which, 
when  examined  by  the  microfcope,  have  the  exa£t  figure, 
colour,  and  confidence  of  farina,  taken  from  the  anthe- 
rse  of  particular  flowers*  After  the  farina  is  digefted, 
and  converted  into  wax,  the  bees  pofiefs  the  power  of 
bringing  it  from  their  flomachs  to  their  mouths.  The  in- 
itrument  they  employ  in  furnifhing  materials  for  con- 
ftructing  their  waxen  cells  is  their  tongue.  This  tongue 
is  fituated  below  the  two  teeth  or  fangs.  When  at  work, 
the  tongue  may  be  feen  by  the  afliftance  of  a  lens  and  a 
glafs-hive.  It  is  then  in  perpetual  motion,  and  its  moti- 
ons 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         307 

cms  are  extremely  rapid.  Its  figure  continually  varies. 
Sometimes  it  is  more  fharp,  at  others  it  is  flatter,  and  ibme- 
times  it  is  or  more  lefs  concave,  and  partly  covered  with 
a  moid  pafle  or  wax.  By  the  different  movements  of  its 
tongue,  the  bee  continues  to  fupply  frefh  wax  to  the  two 
teeth,  which  are  employed  in  raifmg  and  fafliioning  the 
walls  of  its  cell,  till  they  have  acquired  a  fufficient  height. 
As  foon  as  the  moid  pafle  or  wax  dries,  which  it  does  al- 
moft  inftantaneoufly,  it  then  affumes  all  the  appearances 
and  qualities  of  common  wax.  There  is  a  ftill  ftronger 
proof  that  wax  is  the  refult  of  an  animal  procefs.  When 
bees  are  removed  ihto  a  new  hive,  and  clofely  confined 
from  the  morning  to  the  evening,  if  the  hive  chances  to 
pleale  them,  in  the  courfe  of  this  day  feveral  waxen  cells 
will  be  formed,  without  the  pofTibility  of  a  -(ingle  bee's 
having  had  accefs  to  the  fields,  Befides,  the  rude  mate- 
rials, or  the  farina  of  plants  $  carried  into  the  hive,  are  of 
various  colours.  The  farina  of  forne  plants  employed  by 
the  bees  is  whitifh  ;  in  others  it  is  of  a  fine  yellow  colour  , 
in  others  it  is  almoft  entirely  red  ;  and  in  others  it  is  green. 
The  combs  conftru&ed  with  thefe  differently-coloured  ma- 
terials are,  however,  uniformly  of  the  fame  colour.  Every 
comb,  efpecially  when  it  is  newly  made,  is  of  a  pure  white 
colour,  which  is  more  or  lefs  tarnifhed  by  age,  the  ope- 
ration of  the  air,  or  by  other  accidental  circumftances. 
To  bleach  wax,  therefore,  requires  only  the  art  of  .ex- 
tracting fuch  foreign  bodies  as  may  have  infinuated  them- 
felves  into  its  fubftance,  and  changed  its  original  colour. 

Bees,  from  the  nature  of  their  conftitution,  require  a 
warm  habitation.  They  are  likewife  extremely  felicitous 
to  prevent  infects  of  any  kind  from  getting  admittance 
into  their  hives.  To  accomplifh  both  thefe  purpofes, 
when  they  take  poffeflion  of  a  new  hive,  they  carefully 
examine  every  part  of  it,  and,  if  they  difcover  any  fmall 
holes  or  chinks,  they  immediately  pafte  them  firmly  up 
with  a  refinous  fubftance  which  differs  confiderably  from 
wax.  This  fubftance  was  not  unknown  to  the  ancients. 
Pliny  mentions  it  under  the  name  of  propolis,  or  bee-glue. 
Bees  ufe  the  propolis  for  rendering  their  hives  more  clofe 
and  perfect,  in  preference  to  wax,  becaufe  the  former  is 


3o8  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

more  durable,  and  more  powerfully  refifts  the  viciflitudes 
of  weather,  than  the  latter.  This  glue  is  not,  like 
wax,  procured  by  an  animal  procefs.  The  bees  collect 
it  from  different  trees,  as  the  poplars,  the  birches,  and 
the  willows.  It  is  a  complete  production  of  Nature,  and 
requires  no  addition  or  manufacture  from  the  animals  by 
which  it  is  employed.  After  a  bee  has  procured  a  quan- 
tity fufficient  to  fill  the  cavities  in  its  two  hind  thighs,  it 
repairs  to  the  hive.  Two  of  its  companions  inftantly 
draw  out  the  propolis,  and  apply  it  to  fill  up  fuch  chinks, 
holes,  or  other  deficiencies,  as  they  find  in  their  habita- 
tion. But  this  is  not  the  only  ufe  to  which  bees  apply 
the  propolis.  They  are  extremely  felicitous  to  remove 
fuch  infects  or  foreign  bodies  as  happen  to  get  admiflion 
into  the  hive.  When  fo  light  as  not  to  exceed  their 
powers,  they  firft  kill  the  infect  with  their  flings,  and  then 
drag  irout  with  their  teeth.  But  it  fometimes  happens 
that  an  ill-fated  fnail  creeps  into  the  hive.  It  is  no  fooner 
perceived  than  it  is  attacked  on  all  fides  and  flung  to 
death.  But  how  are  the  bees  to  carry  out  a  burden  of 
fuch  weight  ?  This  labour  they  know  would  be  in  vain. 
They  are  perhaps  apprehenfive  that  a  body  fo  large  would 
difFufe,  in  the  courfe  of  its  putrefaction,  a  difagreeable  or 
noxious  odour  through  the  hive.  To  prevent  fuch  hurt- 
ful confequences,  immediately  after  the  animal's  death, 
they  embalm  it,  by  covering  every  part  of  its  body 
with  propolis,  through  which  no  effluvia  can  efcape. — • 
When  a  fnail  with  a  fhell  gets  entrance,  to  difpofe  of  it 
gives  much  lefs  trouble  and  expence  to  the  bees.  As  foon 
as  this  kind  of  fnail  receives  the  firft  wound  from  a  fling, 
it  naturally  retires  within  its  fhell.  In  this  cafe,  the  bees, 
inftead  of  pafting  it  all  over  with  propolis,  content  them- 
ielves  with  gluing  all  round  the  margin  of  the  fhell,  which 
is  fufficient  to  render  the  animal  forever  immoveably  fixed. 
But  propolis,  and  the  materials  for  making  wax,  are  not 
the  only  fubftances  thefe  induflrious  animals  have  to  col- 
lect. As  formerly  remarked,  befide  the  whole  winter, 
there  are  many  days  in  which  the  bees  are  prevented  by 
the  weather  from  going  abroad  in  queft  of  provifions.  They 
are,  therefore,  under  the  neceflity  of  collecting,  and  amaf- 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.        309 

fmg  in  cells  deftined  for  that  purpofe,  large  quantities  of 
honey.  This  fweet  and  balfamic  liquor  they  extract,  by 
means  of  their  probofcis  or  trunk,  from  the  nectariferous 
glands  of  flowers.  The  trunk  of  a  bee  is  a  kind  of  rough 
cartilaginous  tongue.  After  collecting  a  few  fmall  drops 
of  honey,  the  animal  with  its  probofcis  conveys  them  to 
its  mouth  and  fwallows  them.  From  the  cefophagus,  or 
gullet,  it  pafles  into  the  firfl  flomach,  which  is  more  or 
lefs  fwelled  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  honey  it  con- 
tains. When  empty,  it  has  the  appearance  of  a  fine  white 
thread :  But,  when  filled  with  honey,  it  aflumes  the  figure 
of  an  oblong  bladder,  the  membrane  of  which  is  fo  thin 
and  tranfparent,  that  it  allows  the  colour  of  the  liquor  it 
contains  to  be  diflin&ly  feen.  This  bladder  is  well  known 
to  children  who  live  in  the  country.  They  cruelly  amufe 
themfelves  with  catching  bees,  and  tearing  them  afunder,in 
order  to  fuck  the  honey.  A  fmgle  flower  furnifhes  but  a 
fmall  quantity  of  honey.  The  bees  are,  therefore,  obliged 
to  fly  from  one  flower  to  another  till  they  fill  their  firfl  flo- 
machs.  When  they  have  accomplifhed  this  purpofe,  they 
return  direclly  to  the  hive,  and  difgorge  in  a  cell  the  whole 
honey  they  have  collected.  It  not  unfrequently  happens, 
however,  that,  when  on  its  way  to  the  hive,  it  is  accofled 
by  a  hungry  companion.  How  the  one  can  communicate 
its  neceflity  to  the  other,  it  is  perhaps  impoflible  to  dif- 
cover.  But  the  fact  is  certain,  that,  when  two  bees  meet 
in  this  fituation,  they  mutually  flop,  and  the  one  whofe 
flomach  is  full  of  honey  extends  its  trunk,  opens  its  mouth, 
which  lies  a  little  beyond  the  teeth,  and,  like  ruminating 
animals,  forces  up  the  honey  into  that  cavity.  The  hun- 
gry bee  knows  how  to  take  advantage  of  this  hofpitable 
invitation.  With  the  point  of  its  trunk  it  fucks  the  ho- 
ney from  the  other's  mouth.  When  not  flopped  on  the 
road,  the  bee  proceeds  to  the  hive,  and  in  the  fame  man- 
ner offers  its  honey  to  thofe  who  are  at  work,  as  if  it 
meant  to  prevent  the  neceflity  of  quitting  their  labour 
in  order  to  go  in  quefl  of  food.  In  bad  weather,  the 
bees  feed  upon  the  honey  laid  up  in  open  cells ;  but  they 
never  touch  thefe  refervoirs  when  their  companions  are 
enabled  to  fupply  them  with  frefh  honey  from  the  fields. 

But 


3iq  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

But  the  mouths  of  thofe  cells  which  are  deftined  for  pre- 
ferving  honey  during  winter,  they  always  cover  with  a  lid 
or  thin  plate  of  wax. 

Though  not  ftrictly  connected  wuh  the  prefent  fubject, 
we  cannot  refrain  from  giving  fome  account  of  the  inge- 
nious Mr.  Debraw's  difcoveries  concerning  the  fex  of 
bees,  and  the  manner  in  which  their  fpecies  is  multiplied*. 
It  was  almoft  univerfally  believed,  both  by  ancients  and 
moderns,  that  bees,  like  other  animals,  propagated  by  an 
actual  intercourfe  of  the  male  and  female,  though  it  ne- 
ver could  be  perceived  by  the  moft  attentive  obfervers. 
Pliny  remarks,  that  apium  coitus  vifus  eft  nunquam  ;  and 
even  the  indefatigable  Reaumur,  notwithftanding  the  ma- 
ny minute  refearches  and  experiments  he  made  concern- 
ing every  part  of  the  oeconomy  of  bees,  and  though  he 
reprefents  the  mother,  or  queen-bee,  as  a  perfect  Mefla- 
lina,  could  never  detect  an  actual  intercourfe.  From  this 
fingular  circumitance,  Maraldi,  in  his  obfervations  upon 
bees  f ,  conjectured  that  the  eggs  of  bees,  like  thofe  of 
fifties,  were  impregnated  after  they  were  depofited  in  the 
cells  by  the  mother.  He  was  farther  confirmed  in  this 
opinion,  by  uniformly  obferving  that  a  whitiih  liquid  fub- 
ftance  furrounded  each  egg  which  turned  out  to  be  fer- 
tile ;  but  that  thofe  eggs  round  which  no  fuch  fubftance 
was  to  be  found  were  always  barren.  The  working  bees, 
or  thofe  which  collect  from  flowers  the  materials  of  wax, 
have  generally  been  confidered  as  belonging  to  neither 
fex.  But  Mr.  Shirach,  a  German  Naturalift,  in  his 
Hiftory  of  the  Queen  of  the  Bces^  maintains,  that  all  the 
common  bees  are  females  in  a  difguifed  or  barren  ftate  ; 
that  the  organs  which  diftinguifh  the  fex,  and  particularly 
the  ovaria,  are  either  obliterated,  or,  on  account  of  their 
minutenefs,  have  not  hitherto  been  difcovered ;  that,  in 
the  early  period  of  its  exiftence,  every  one  of  thefe  bees 
is  capable  of  becoming  a  queen-bee,  if  the  community 
choofe  to  nurfe  it  in  a  certain  manner,  and  to  raife  it  to 
that  diftinguifhed  rank ;  and  that  the  queen-bee  lays  on- 
ly two  kinds  of  eggs,  namely,  thofe  that  are  to  produce 

drones 

*  See  Philofophical  TYanlaftions,  ann.  1777,  Parti,  page  1.5.     S. 
•f  Hift.  de  1'Acad.  dc  Scien.  ann.  1712.     S. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         311 

drones  or  males,  and  thofe  from  which  the  working  bees 
are  to  proceed. 

The  conjecture  of  Maraldi  concerning  the  impregna- 
tion of  the  eggs  after  they  are  depofited  in  the  cells,  as 
well  as  the  observations  of  Mr.  Shirach  concerning  the  fex 
of  the  working  bees,  have  been  completely  verified  by  the 
experiments  of  Mr.  Debraw.  Both  Maraldi  and  Reaumur 
had  long  ago  difcovered,  that  in  every  hive,  befide  the 
large  drones,  there  are  males,  or  drones,  as  fmall  as  the 
working  bees.  By  means  of  glafs-hives,  Mr.  Debraw 
obferved,  that  the  queen-bee  begins  to  depofit  her  eggs  in 
the  cells  on  the  fourth  or  fifth  day  after  the  bees  begin  to 
work.  On  the  firfl  or  fecond  day  after  the  eggs  are  pla- 
ced in  the  cells,  he  perceived  feveral  bees  finking  the  pof- 
terior  parts  of  their  bodies  into  each  cell,  where  they  con- 
tinued but  a  fhort  time.  After  they  retired,  he  faw  plain- 
ly with  the  naked  eye  a  fmall  quantity  of  whitifh  liquor 
left  in  the  bottom  of  each  cell  that  contained  an  egg. 
Next  day  he  found  that  this  liquor  was  abforbed  into  the 
egg,  which,  on  the  fourth  day,  is  hatched.  When  the 
worms  efcape  from  the  eggs,  they  are  fed  for  the  firft 
eight  or  ten  days  with  honey  by  the  working  bees.  After 
that  period  they  fhut  up  the  mouths  of  the  cells,  where 
the  worms  continue  inclofed  for  ten  days  more,  during 
which  time  they  undergo  their  different  transformations. 

'  I  immerfed,'  fays  Mr.  Debraw,  c  all  the  bees  in  wa- 
4  ter  ;  and,  when  they  appeared  to  be  in  a  fenfelefs  ftate, 

*  I  gently  prefied  every  one  of  them  between  my  fingers, 
6  in  order  to  diftinguifh  thofe  armed  with  flings  from 
'  thofe  that  had  none,  which  laft  I  might  fufpecl  to  be 

*  males.     Of  thefe  I  found  fixty-feven,  exactly  of  the  fize 
'  of  common  bees,  yielding  a  little  whitifh  liquor  on  being 

*  prefled  between  the  fingers.     I  killed  every  one,  and  re- 

*  placed  the  fwarm  in  a  glafs-hive,  where  they  immediate- 

*  ly  applied  again  to  the  work  of  making  cells  ;  and,  on  the 
'  fourth  or  fifth  day,  very  early  in  the  morning,  I  had  the 

*  pleafure  to  fee  the  queen-bee  depofiting  her  eggs  in  thefe 

*  cells,  which  (he  did  by  placing  the  poiierior  part  of  her 

*  body  in  each  of  them.     I  continued  to  watch  moil  part 

*  of  the  enfuing  days,  but  could  difcover  nothing  of  what 

'I  had 


3i2  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

*  I  had  feen  before.     The  eggs,  after  the  fourth  day,  in* 

*  ftead  of  changing  in  the  manner  of  caterpillars,  were 
6  found  in  the  fame  ftate  they  were  in  the  firft  day.     The 

*  next  day  about  noon,  the  whole  fwarm  forfookthe  hive, 

*  probably  becaufe  the  animals  perceived,  that,  without 

*  the  afliftance  of  males,  they  were  unqualified  to  multi- 
4  ply  their  fpecies.'     To  mow  the  neceflity  of  the  eggs  be- 
ing fecundated  by  the  male  influence,  Mr.  Debraw  relates 
an  experiment  ftill  more  decifive. 

*  I  took,'  fays  he,  4  the  brood-comb,  which,  as  I  ob- 
c  ferved  before,  had  not  been  impregnated  :  I  divided  it 
c  into  two  parts ;  one  I  placed  under  a  glafs-bell,  No.  i. 

*  with  honey-comb  for  the  bees  food  ;  I  took  care  to  leave 
a  queen,  but  no  drones,  among  the  common  bees  I  con- 
fined in  it.     The  other  piece  of  brood-comb  I  placed 
under  another  glafs-bell,  No.  2.  with  a  few  drones,  a 
queen,  and  a  number  of  common  bees  proportioned  to 
the  fize  of  the  glafs.     The  refult  was,  that,  in  the  glafs 
No.  i.  no  impregnation  happened  ;  the  eggs  remained 
in  the  fame  ftate  they  were  in  when  put  into  the  glafs  ; 
and,  upon  giving  the  bees  their  liberty  on  the  feventh 

c  day,  they  all  flew  away,  as  was  found  to  be  the  cafe  in 
c  the  former  experiment :  Whereas,  in  the  glafs  No.  2. 
c  I  faw,  the  very  day  after  the  bees  had  been  put  under 

*  it,  the  impregnation  of  the  eggs  by  the  drones  in  every 

*  cell  containing  eggs  ;  the  bees  did  not  leave  their  hive 

*  on  receiving  their  liberty  ;  and,  in  the  courfe  of  twenty 
c  days,  every  egg  underwent  all  the  above  mentioned  ne- 
6  cefTary  changes,  and  formed  a  pretty  numerous  young 
c  colony,  in  which  I  was  not  a  little  ftartled  to  find  two 
c  queens.' 

The  appearance  of  a  new  queen  in  a  hive  where  there 
was  no  large  or  royal  cell,  made  Mr.  Debraw  conjecture 
that  the  bees  are  capable,  by  fome  particular  means,  of 
transforming  a  common  Tubjeft  into  a  queen.  To  afcer- 
tain  the  truth  of  this  conjecture,  he  provided  himfelf  with 
four  glafs-hives,  into  each  of  which  he  put  a  piece  of 
brood-comb  taken  from  an  old  hive.  Thefe  pieces  of 
brood-comb  contained  eggs,  worms,  and  nymphs.  In 
each  hive  he  confined  a  fufficient  number  of  common 

bees, 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         313 

bees',  and  fome  drones  or  males,  but  took  care  that  there 
ihould  be  no  queen. 

6  The  bees,'  Mr.  Debraw  remarks,  <  rinding  themfelves 
«  without  a  queen,  made  a  flrange  buzzing  noife,  which 

*  lafted  near  two  days,  at  the  end  of  which  they  fettled, 
'  and  betook  thcmfelves  to  work.     On  the  fourth  day,  I 

*  perceived  in  each  hive  the  beginning  of  a  royal  cell,  a 

*  certain  indication  that  one  of  the  inclofed  worms  'would  foon 

*  be  converted  into  a  queen.     The  conduction  of  the  royal 

*  cell  being  nearly  accomplimed,  I  ventured  to  leave  an 
c  opening  for  the  bees  to  get  out,  and  found  that  they  re- 

*  turned  as  regularly  as  they  do  in  common  hives,  and 
'  Shewed  no  inclination  to  leave  their  habitation.     But,  to 
'  be  brief,  at  the  end  of  twenty  days,  I  obferved  four 

*  young  queens  among  the  new  progeny.' 

To  thefe  experiments  of  Mr.  Debraw,  it  was  objected, 
that  the  queen-bee,  befide  the  eggs  which  me  depofits  in 
the  royal  cells,  might  likewife  have  laid  royal  or  female 
eggs  in  the  common  cells ;  and  that  the  pieces  of  brood- 
comb,  fo  fuccefsfully  employed  in  his  experiments  for  the 
production  of  a  queen,  had  always  happened  to  contain 
one  of  thefe  royal  eggs,  or  rather  one  of  the  worms  pro- 
ceeding  from  them.  But  this  objection  was  afterwards 
removed  by  many  other  accurate  experiments,  the  refults 
of  which  were  uniformly  the  fame  ;  and  the  objectors  to 
Mr.  Debraw's  difcovery  candidly  admit,  that,  when  the 
community  ftands  in  need  of  a  queen,  the  working  bees 
poflefs  the  power  of  raifing  a  common  fubject  to  the 
throne ;  and  that  every  worm  of  the  hive  is  capable,  un- 
der a  certain  courfe  of  management,  of  becoming  the 
mother  of  a  numerous  progeny.  This  metamorphofis 
feems  to  be  chiefly  accomplifhed  by  a  peculiar  nourifh- 
ment  carefully  adminiflered  to  the  worm  by  the  working- 
bees,  by  which,  and  perhaps  by  other  unknown  means,  - 
the  female  organs,  the  germs  of  which  previoufly  exifted 
in  the  embryo,  are  expanded,,  and  all  thofe  differences  in 
form  and  fize,  that  fo  remarkably  diflinguifh  the  queen 
from  the  working-bees,  are  produced. 

It  is  always  a  fortunate  circumftance  when  difcoveries, 
which  at  firft  feem  calculated  folely  to  gratify  curiofity, 

R  r  are 


THE    PHILOSOPHY 

are  capable  of  being  turned  to  the  advantage  of  fociety. 
Mr.  Debraw,  accordingly,  has  not  failed  to  point  out  the 
advantages  that  may  be  derived  from  his  refearches  into 
the  ceconomy  and  nature  of  bees.  By  his  difcovery,  we 
are  taught  an  eafy  mode  of  multiplying,  without  end, 
fwarms,  or  new  colonies,  of  thefe  ufeful  infects.  Befide 
the  great  increafe  of  honey,  if  this  difcovery  were  fuffi- 
ciently  attended  to,  confiderable  fums  annually  expended 
in  importing  wax  into  this  kingdom  from  the  Continent 
might  be  faved.  The  practice  of  this  new  art,  Mr.  Schi- 
rach  informs  us,  has  already  extended  itfelf  through  Up- 
per Lufatia,  the  Palatinate,  Bohemia,  Bavaria,  Silefia,  and 
Poland.  In  fome  of  thefe  countries,  it  has  excited  the 
attention,  and  acquired  the  patronage,  of  government. 
The  Emprefs  of  Ruilia,  who  never  lofes  fight  of  a  fingle. 
article  by  which  the  induftry,  and,  of  courfe,  the  happi- 
nefs,  of  her  fubjects  can  be  augmented,  has  fent  a  proper 
perfon  to  Klein  Bautzen  to  be  inftru&ed  in  the  general 
principles,  and  to  learn  all  the  minutiae,  of  this  new  and 
important  art. 

Wafps^  like  the  bees,  afibciate  in  great  numbers,  and 
conftruct,  with  much  dexterity  and  {kill,  a  common  ha- 
bitation. There  are  many  ipecies  of  wafps,  fome  of 
which  unite  into  focieties,  and  others  fpend  their  lives  in 
perfect  folitude.  But,  in  this  place,  we  mall  confine  our 
attention  to  the  operations  of  the  common  aflbciating 
wafp,  an  infect  fo  well  known,  even  to  children,  that  it 
requires  no  defcription.  Though  bees,  as  well  as  wafps, 
are  armed  with  a  fting,  yet  the  former  may  be  regarded 
as  a  placid  and  harmlefs  race.  Bees  are  continually  oc- 
cupied with  their  own  labours.  Their  chief  care  is  to 
defend  themfelves ;  and  they  never  take  nourifhment  at 
the  expence  of  any  other  animal.  Wafps,  on  the  con- 
trary, are  ferocious  animals,  who  live  entirely  on  rapine 
and  deftruclion.  They  kill  and  devour  every  infect  that 
is  inferior  to  them  in  ftrength.  But,  though  warlike  and 
rapacious  in  their  general  manners,  they  are  polifhed  and 
peaceable  among  themfelves.  To  their  young  they  dif- 
cover  the  greatefl  tendernefs  and  affection.  For  their 
protection  and  conveniericy  no  labour  is  fpared ;  and  the 

habita- 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         315 

habitations  they  conftrucl  do  honour  to  their  patience, 
addrefsr  and  fagacity.  Their  architecture,  like  that  of  the 
honey-bee,  is  fmgular,  and  worthy  of  admiration ;  but 
the  materials  employed  furnifh  neither  honey  nor  wax. 
Impelled  by  an  inftinctive  love  of  pofterity,  they,  with 
great  labour,  fkill,  and  afliduity,  conftrucl:  combs,  which 
are  likewife  compofed  of  hexagonal  or  fix-fided  cells. 
Though  thefe  cells  are  not  made  of  wax,  they  are  equally 
proper  for  the  reception  of  eggs,  and  for  affording  con- 
venient habitations  to  the  worms  which  proceed  from 
them  till  their  transformation  into  wafps. 

In  general,  the  cells  of  the  wafps  are  formed  of  a  kind 
of  paper,  which,  with  great  dexterity,  is  fabricated  by 
the  animals  themfelves.  The  number  of  combs  and  cells 
in  a  wafp's  neft  is  always  proportioned  to  the  number  of 
individuals  aflbciated,  Different  fpecies  choofe  different 
fituations  for  building  their  nefts.  Some  expofe  their 
habitations  to  all  the  injuries  of  the  air  ;  others  prefer  the 
trunks  of  decayed  trees ;  and  others,  as  the  common 
kind,  of  which  we  are  principally  treating,  conceal  their 
nefts  under  ground.  The  hole  which  leads  to  a  wafp's 
neft  is  about  an  inch  in  diameter.  This  hole  is  a  kind 
of  gallery  mined  by  the  wafps,  is  feldom  in  a  ftraight  line, 
and  varies  in  length  from  half  a  foot  to  two  feet,  accord- 
ing to  the  diftance  of  the  neft  from  the  furface  of  the 
ground.  When  expofed  to  view,  the  whole  neft  appears 
to  be  of  a  roundilh  form,  and  fometimes  about  twelve  or 
fourteen  inches  in  diameter.  It  is  ftrongly  fortified  all 
round  with  walls  or  layers  of  paper,  the  furface  of  which 
is  rough  and  irregular.  In  thefe  walls,  or  rather  in  this 
external  covering,  two  holes  are  left  for  paiTages  to  the 
combs.  The  wafps  uniformly  enter  the  neft  by  one  hole, 
and  go  out  by  the  other,  which  prevents  any  confufion 
or  interruption  to  their  common  labours. 

We  are  now  arrived  at  the  gates  of  this  fubterraneous 
city,  which,  though  fmall,  is  extremely  populous.  Upon 
removing  the  external  covering,  we  perceive  that  the 
whole  interior  part  confifts  of  feveral  ftoreys  or  floors  of 
combs,  which  are  parallel  to  each  other,  and  nearly  in 
a  horizontal  pofition.  Every  ftorey  is  compofed  of  a 

numerous 


316  THE    PHILOS  OPH  Y 

numerous  aficmblage  of  hexagonal  cells,  very  regularly 
constructed  with  a  matter  refembling  afh-coloured  paper, 
Thefe  cells  contain  neither  wax  nor  honey,  but  are  folely 
deftined  for  containing  the  eggs,  the  worms  which  are 
hatched  from  them,  the  nymphs,  and  the  young  wafps 
till  they  are  able  to  fly.  Wafps  nefts  are  not  always  com- 
pofed  of  an  equal  number  of  combs.  They  fometimes 
confift  of  fifteen,  and  fometimes  of  eleven  only.  The 
combs  are  of  various  diameters.  The  firft,  or  uppermoft, 
is  often  only  two  inches  in  diameter,  while  thofe  of  the 
middle  fometimes  exceed  a  foot.  The  loweft  are  alfo 
much  fmaller  than  the  middle  ones.  All  thefe  combs, 
like  fo  many  floors  or  ftoreys  ranged  parallelly  above  each 
other,  afford  lodging  to  prodigious  numbers  of  inhabi- 
tants. Reaumur  computed,  from  the  number  of  cells  in 
a  given  portion  of  comb,  that,  in  a  medium-fized  neft, 
there  were  at  lead  10,000  cells.  This  calculation  gives 
an  idea  of  the  aftoniming  prolific  powers  of  thefe  infects, 
and  of  the  vaft  numbers  of  individuals  produced  in  a 
fmgle  feafon  from  one  nefl ;  for  every  cell  ferves  as  a  lodg- 
ing to  no  lefs  than  three  generations.  Hence  a  mode- 
rately-fized  neft  gives  birth  annually  to  30,000  young 
wafps. 

The  different  ftoreys  of  combs  are  always  about  half 
an  inch  high,  which  leaves  free  paffages  to  the  wafps  from 
one  part  of  the  neft  to  another.  Thefe  intervals  are  fo 
fpacious,  that,  in  proportion  to  the  bulk  of  the  animals, 
they  may  be  compared  to  great  halls,  or  broad  ftreets. 
Each  of  the  larger  combs  is  fupported  by  about  fifty  pil- 
lars, which,  at  the  fame  time,  give  folidity  to  the  fabrick, 
and  greatly  ornament  the  whole  neft.  The  lefler  combs 
are  fupported  by  the  fame  ingenious  contrivance.  Thefe 
pillars  are  coarfe,  and  of  a  roundifh  form.  Their  baft's 
and  capitals,  however,  are  much  larger  in  diameter  than 
towards  the  middle.  By  the  one  end  they  are  attached 
to  the  fuperior  comb,  and  by  the  other  to  the  inferior. 
Thus  between  two  combs  there  is  always  a  fpecies  of  ruftic 
colonade.  The  wafps  begin  at  the  top  and  build  down- 
ward. The  uppermoft  and  fmalleft  comb  is  firft  con- 
ftru&ed.  It  is  attached  to  the  fuperior  part  of  the  exter- 
nal 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          317 

nal  covering.  The  fecond  comb  is  fixed  to  the  bottom 
of  the  firft ;  and  in  this  manner  the  animals  proceed  till 
the  whole  operarion  is  completed.  The  connecting  pillars 
are  compofed  of  the  fame  kind  of  paper  as  the  reft  of  the 
neft.  To  allow  the  wafps  entries  into  the  void  fpaces, 
roads  are  left  between  the  combs  and  the  external  enve- 
lope or  covering. 

Having  given  a  general  idea  of  this  curious  edifice,  it 
is  next  natural  to  inquire  how  the  wafps  build,  and  how 
they  employ  themfelves  in  their  abodes.  But,  as  all 
thefe  myfteries  are  performed  under  the  earth,  it  required 
much  induftry  and  attention  to  difcover  them.  By  the 
ingenuity  and  perfeverance  of  M.  de  Reaumur,  however, 
we  are  enabled  to  explain  fome  parts  of  their  internal 
ceconomy  and  manners.  This  indefatigable  naturalift  con- 
trived to  make  wafps,  like  the  honey-bees,  lodge  and 
work  in  glafs-hives.  In  this  operation  he  was  greatly  af- 
fifted  by  the  ardent  affection  which  thefe  animals  have  to 
their  offspring ;  for  he  found,  that,  though  the  neft  was 
cut  in  different  directions,  and  though  it  was  expofed  to 
the  light,  the  wafps  never  deferted  it,  nor  relaxed  in  their 
attention  to  their  young.  When  placed  in  a  glafs-hive, 
they  are  perfectly  peaceable,  and  never  attack  the  obferver^ 
if  he  calmly  contemplates  their  operations  ;  for,  naturally, 
they  do  not  fting,  unlefs  they  are  irritated. 

Immediately  after  a  wafp's  neft  has  been  tranfported 
from  its  natural  fituation,  and  covered  with  a  glafs-hive, 
the  firft  operation  of  the  infects  is  to  repair  the  injuries 
it  has  fuffered.  With  wonderful  activity  they  carry  off 
all  the  earth  and  foreign  bodies  that  may  have  acciden- 
tally been  conveyed  into  the  hive.  Some  of  them  occu- 
py themfelves  fixing  the  neft  to  the  top  and  fides  of  the 
hive  by  pillars  of  paper  fimilar  to  thofe  which  fupport 
the  different  (lories  or  ftrata  of  combs  ;  others  repair  the 
breaches  it  has  fuftained ;  and  others  fortify  it  by  aug- 
menting confiderably  the  thicknefs  of  its  external  cover. 
This  external  envelope  is  an  operation  peculiar  to  wafps. 
Its  conftruction  requires  great  labour ;  for  it  frequently 
exceeds  an  inch  and  a  half  in  thicknefs,  and  is  compofed 
of  a  number  of  ftrata  or  layers  as  thin  as  paper,  between 

each 


3i8  THE   PHILOS  OPH  Y 

each  of  which  there  is  a  void  fpace.  This  cover  is  a  kind 
of  box  for  incloling  the  combs,  and  defending  them  from 
the  rain  which  occafionally  penetrates  the  earth.  For 
this  purpofe  it  is  admirably  adapted.  If  it  were  one  fo- 
lid  mafs,  the  contact  of  water  would  penetrate  the  whole, 
and  reach  the  combs.  But,  to  prevent  this  fatal  effect, 
the  animals  leave  confiderable  vacuities  between  each 
vaulted  layer,  which  are  generally  fifteen  or  fixteen  in 
number.  By  this  ingenious  piece  of  architecture,  one  or 
two  layers  may  be  moiftened  with  water,  while  the  others 
are  not  in  the  leaft  affected. 

The  materials  employed  by  wafps  in  the  conduction 
of  their  nefts  are  very  different  from  thofe  made  ufe  of 
by  the  honey-bee.  Inftead  of  collecting  the  farina  of 
flowers,  and  digefting  it  into  wax,  the  wafps  gnaw  with 
their  two  fangs,  which  are  ftrong  and  ferrated,  fmall 
fibres  of  wood  from  the  fames  of  windows,  the  pofts  of 
efpaliers,  garden  doors,  &c.  but  never  attempt  growing 
or  green  timber.  Thefe  fibres,  which,  though  very  flen- 
der,  are  often  a  line,  or  a  twelfth  part  of  an  inch  long. 
After  cutting  a  certain  number  of  them,  the  animals  col- 
lect them  into  minute  bundles,  tranfport  them  to  their  neft, 
and,  by  means  of  a  glutinous  fubflance  furnifhed  from 
their  own  bodies,  form^hem  into  a  moifl  and  ductile 
pafte.  Of  this  fubftance,  or  papier  mache^  thej  conftruct 
the  external  cover,  the  partitions  of  the  neft,  the  hex- 
agonal cells,  and  the  folid  columns  which  fupport  the  fe- 
veral  layers  or  (lories  of  combs. 

The  conftructing  of  the  neft  occupies  a  comparatively- 
fmall  number  of  labourers.  The  others  are  differently 
employed.  Here  it  is  neceffary  to  remark,  that  the  re- 
publics of  wafps,  like  thofe  of  the  honey-bees,  confift  of 
three  kinds  of  flies,  males,  females,  and  neuters.  Like 
the  bees,  alfo,  the  number  of  neuters  far  furpaffes  thofe 
of  both  males  and  females.  The  greateft  quantity  of  la- 
bour is  devolved  upon  the  neuters ;  but  they  are  not, 
like  the  neuter  bees,  the  only  workers  ;  for  there  is  no 
part  of  their  different  operations  which  the  females,  at 
certain  times,  do  not  execute.  Neither  do  the  -males, 
though  their  induftry  is  not  comparable  to  that  of  the 

neuters, 


OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.          319 

neuters,  remain  entirely  idle.  They  often  occupy  them- 
felves  in  the  interior  part  of  the  neft.  The  greateft  part 
of  the  labour,  however,  is  performed  by  the  neuters. 
They  build  the  neft,  feed  the  males,  the  females,  and 
even  the  young.  But,  while  the  neuters  are  employed 
in  thefe  different  operations,  the  others  are  abroad'  in 
hunting  parties.  Some  attack  with  intrepidity  live  in- 
feds,  which  they  fometimes  carry  entire  to  the  neft ; 
but  they  generally  tranfport  the  abdomen  or  belly  only. 
Others  pillage  butchers  flails,  from  which  they  often  ar- 
rive with  a  piece  of  meat  larger  than  the  half  of  their 
own  bodies.  Others  refort  to  gardens,  and  fuck  the  jui- 
ces of  fruits.  When  they  return  to  the  neft,  they  diftri- 
bute  a  part  of  their  plunder  to  the  females,  to  the  males, 
and  even  to  fuch  neuters  as  have  been  ufefully  occupied 
at  home.  As  foon  as  a  neuter  enters  the  neft,  it  is  fur- 
rounded  by  feveral  wafps,  to  each  of  whom  it  freely  gives 
a  portion  of  the  food  it  has  brought.  Thofe  who  have 
not  been  hunting  for  prey,  but  have  been  fucking  the 
juices  of  fruits,  though  they  feem  to  return  empty,  fail 
not  to  regale  their  companions ;  for,  after  their  arrival, 
they  ftation  themfelves  upon  the  upper  part  of  the  neft, 
and  difcharge  from  their  mouths  two  or  three  drops  of 
a  clear  liquid,  which  are  immediately  fwallowed  by  the 
domeftics. 

The  neuter  wafps,  though  the  moft  laborious,  are  the 
fmalleft ;  but  they  are  extremely  active  and  vivacious. 
The  females  are  much  larger,  heavier,  and  flower  in  their 
movements.  The  males  are  of  an  intermediate  fize  be- 
tween that  of  the  females  and  neuters.  From  thefe  dif- 
ferences in  fize,  it  is  eafy  to  diftinguifh  the  different  kinds 
of  thofe  wafps  which  build  their  nefts  below  the  ground. 
In  the  hive  of  the  honey-bee,  the  number  of  females  is 
always  extremely  fmall ;  but,  in  a  wafp's  neft,  there  are 
often  more  than  three  hundred  females.  During  the 
months  of  June,  July,  and  Auguft,  they  remain  conftant- 
ly  in  the  neft,  and  are  never  feen  abroad  except  in  the 
beginning  of  fpring,  and  in  the  months  of  September 
and  October.  During  the  fummer,  they  are  totally  oc- 
cupied in  laying  their  eggs  and  feeding  their  young.  In 

this 


32o  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

this  laft  operation,  they  are  affifted  by  the  other  wafps ; 
for  the  females  alone,  though  numerous,  would  be  in- 
fufEcient  for  the  laborious  tafk.  A  wafp's  neft,  when 
completed,  fometimes  confifts  of  fixteen  thoufand  cells, 
each  of  which  contains  an  egg,  a  worm,  or  a  nymph. 
The  eggs  are  white,  tranfparent,  of  an  oblong  figure, 
and  differ  in  fize,  according  to  the  kind  of  wafps  which 
are  to  proceed  from  them.  Some  of  them  are  no  larger 
than  the  head  of  a  fmall  pin.  They  are  fo  firmly  glued 
to  the  bottoms  of  the  cells,  that  it  is  with  difficulty  they 
can  be  detached  without  breaking.  Eight  days  after  the 
eggs  are  depofited  in  the  cells,  the  worms  are  hatched, 
and  are  confiderably  larger  than  the  eggs  which  gave 
birth  to  them.  Thefe  worms  demand  the  principal  cares 
of  the  wafps  who  continue  always  in  the  neft.  They  feed 
them,  as  birds  feed  their  young,  by.  giving  them,  from 
time  to  time,  a  mouthful  of  food.  It  is  aftoniming  to 
fee  with  what  induflry  and  rapidity  a  female  runs  along 
the  cells  of  a  comb,  and  diftributes  to  each  worm  a  por- 
tion of  nutriment.  In  proportion  to  the  ages  and  con- 
ditions of  the  worms,  they  are  fed  with  folid  food,  fuch 
as  the  bellies  of  infecls,  or  with  a  liquid  fubftance  dif- 
gorged  by  the  mother.  When  a  worm  is  fo  large  as  to 
occupy  its  whole  cell,  it  is  then  ready  to  be  metamor- 
phofed  into  a  nymph.  It  then  refufes  all  nourifhment, 
and  ceafes  to  have  any  connexion  with  the  wafps  in  the 
neft.  It  fhuts  up  the  mouth  of  its  cell  with  a  fine  filken 
cover,  in  the  fame  manner  as  the  filk-worm  and  other 
caterpillars  fpin  their  cods.  This  operation  is  completed 
in  three  or  four  hours,  and  the  animal  remains  in  the 
nymph  ftate  nine  or  ten  days,  when,  with  its  teeth,  it  de- 
ftroys  the  external  cover  of  the  cell,  and  comes  forth 
in  the  form  of  a  winged  infect,  which  is  either  male,  fe- 
male, or  neuter,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  egg  from 
which  it  was  hatched.  In  a  fhort  time,  the  wafps  newly 
transformed  receive  the  food  brought  into  the  neft  by  the 
foragers  in  the  fields.  What  is  ftill  more  curious,  in  the 
courfe  of  the  firft  day  after  their  transformation,  the  young 
wafps  have  been  obferved  going  to  the  fields,  bringing  in 
provifions,  and  diftributing  them  to  the  worms  in  the  cells. 

A  cell 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.        321 

A  cell  is  no  fooner  abandoned  by  a  young  wafp,  than  it 
is  cleaned,  trimmed,  and  repaired  by  an  old  one,  and 
rendered,  in  every  refpeft,  proper  for  the  reception  of 
another  egg. 

As  formerly  mentioned,  wafps  of  different  fexes  differ 
greatly  in  fize.  The  animals  know  how  to  conftrucl  cells 
proportioned  to  the  dimenfions  of  the  fly  that  is  to  pro- 
ceed from  the  egg  which  the  female  depofits  in  them. 
The  neuters  are  fix  times  fmaller  than  the  females,  and 
their  cells  are  built  nearly  in  the  fame  proportion.  Cells 
are  not  only  adapted  for  the  reception  of  neuters,  males, 
and  females,  but  it  is  remarkable  that  the  cells  of  the  neu- 
ters are  never  intermixed  with  thofe  of  the  males  or  fe- 
males. A  comb  is  entirely  occupied  with  fmall  cells  fitted 
for  the  reception  of  neuter  worms.  But  male  and  female 
cells  are  often  found  in  the  fame  comb.  The  males  and 
females  are  of  equal  length,  and,  of  courfe,  require  cells 
of  an  equal  deepnefs.  But  the  cells  of  the  males  are  nar- 
rower than  thofe  of  the  females,  becaufe  the  bodies  of  the 
former  are  never  fo  thick  as  thofe  of  the  latter. 

This  wonderful  affemblage  of  combs,  of  the  pillars 
which  fupport  them,  and  of  the  external  envelope,  is  an 
edifice  which  requires  feveral  months  labour,  and  ferves 
the  animals  one  year  only.  This  habitation,  fo  populous 
in  fummer,  is  almoft  deferted  in  winter,  and  abandoned 
entirely  in  fpring  ;  for,  in  this  lad  feafon,  not  a  fmgle 
wafp  is  to  be  found  in  a  neft  of  the  preceding  year.  It  is 
worthy  of  remark,  that  the  firft  combs  of  a  neft  are  al- 
ways accommodated  for  the  reception  of  the  neuter  or 
working  wafps.  The  city,  of  which  the  foundation  has 
juft  been  laid,  requires  a  number  of  workmen.  The 
neuter  or  working  wafps  are  accordingly  firft  produced. 
A  cell  is  no  fooner  half-completed  than  an  egg  of  a  neuter 
is  depofited  in  it  by  the  female.  Of  fourteen  or  fifteen 
combs  inclofed  in  a  common  cover,  the  four  laft  only  are 
deftined  for  the  reception  of  males  and  females.  Hence 
it  uniformly  happens,  that,  before  the  males  and  females 
are  capable  of  taking  flight,  every  wafp's  neft  is  peopled 
with  feveral  thoufand  neuters  or  workers.  But  the  neu- 
ters, who  are  firft  produced,  are  likewife  the  firft  that  pe- 

Ss  riftr, 


THE    PHILOSOPHY 

»/ 

rifh ;  for  not  one  of  them  furvives  the  termination  eve?* 
of  a  mild  winter.  It  was  remarked  by  the  ancient  Natu- 
ralifts,  that  fome  wafps  lived  one  year  only,  and  others 
two.  To  the  former  Ariftotle  gives  the  appellation  of 
cperarii,  which  are  our  workers  or  neuters,  and  to  the 
latter  matrices •,  which  are  our  females. 

The  female  wafps  are  ftronger,  and  fupport  the  rigours 
of  winter  better,  than  the  males  or  neuters.  Before  the 
end  of  winter,  however,  feveral  hundred  females  die, 
and  not  above  ten  or  a  dozen  in  each  neft  furvive 
that  feafon.  Thefe  few  females  are  deftined  for  the 
continuation  of  the  fpecies.  Each  of  them  becomes  the 
founder  of  a  new  republic.  When  a  queen-bee  departs 
from  a  hive,  in  order  to  eftablifh  a  new  one,  me  is  always 
accompanied  with  feveral  thoufand  induftrious  labourers, 
ready  to  perform  every  neceffary  operation.  But  the  fe- 
male wafp  has  not  the  aid  of  a  fmgle  labourer  ;  for  all 
the  neuters  are  dead  before  the  beginning  of  the  fpring. 
The  female  alone  lays  the  foundation  of  a  new  republic. 
She  either  finds  or  digs  a  hole  under  the  earth,  builds  cells 
for  the  reception  of  her  eggs,  and  feeds  the  worms  which 
proceed  from  them.  Whenever  any  of  thefe  neuter 
worms  are  transformed  into  flies,  they  immediately  aflift 
their  parent  in  augmenting  the  number  of  cells  and  combs, 
and  in  feeding  the  young  worms,  which  are  daily  hatch- 
ing from  the  eggs.  In  a  word,  this  female  wafp,  which 
in  fpring  was  perfectly  folitary,  without  any  proper  habi- 
tation, and  had  every  operation  to  perform,  has,  in  au- 
tumn, feveral  thoufands  of  her  offspring  at  her  devotion, 
and  is  furnimed  with  a  magnificent  palace,  or  rather  city, 
to  protect  her  from  the  injuries  of  the  weather  and  from, 
external  enemies. 

With  regard  to  the  male  wafps,  it  is  uncertain  whether 
any  of  them  furvive  the  winter.  But,  though  not  fo  in- 
dolent as  the  males  of  the  honey-bee,  they  can  be  of  little 
afliftance  to  the  female ;  for  they  never  engage  in  any 
work  of  importance,  fuch  as  conftructing  cells,  or  forti- 
fying the  external  cover  of  the  neft.  They  are  never 
brought  forth  till  towards  the  end  of  Auguft-;  and  their 
fole  occupation  feems  to  be  that  of  keeping  the  neft  clean  : 

They 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.        323 

They  carry  out  every  kind  of  filth,  and  the  carcafes  of  fuch 
of  their  companions  as  happen  to  die.  In  performing 
this  operation,  two  of  them  often  join,  and,  as  mention- 
ed in  another  place,  when  the  load  is  too  heavy,  they  cut 
off  the  head,  and  tranfport  the  dead  animal  at  two  times. 

In  the  beginning  of  fpring^  when  the  female  wafp  has 
built  her  fubterraneous  habitation,  which  is  foon  to  be 
peopled  with  thoufands  of  flies,  me  has  no  occafion  for 
the  males  ;  becaufe,  in  the  month  of  September  or  Octo- 
ber, me  had  been  previoufly  impregnated.  The  males 
and  females  are  produced  at  the  fame  time,  and  they  are 
nearly  equal  in  number.  Like  the  male  honey-bees,  the 
male  wafps  are  deflitute  of  flings,  but  the  females  and 
neuters  have  flings,  the  poifonous  liquor  of  which,  when 
introduced  into  any  part  of  the  human  body,  excites  in- 
flammation, and  creates  a  confiderable  degree  of  pain. 

The  habitations  and  the  ceconomy  of  the  common  ant 
are  exceedingly  curious.  But,  as  they  are  fo  well  known, 
and  fo  obvious  to  infpe&ion  and  examination,  we  mall 
not  detain  the  reader  with  a  defcription  of  them.  To 
fupply  this  defect,  we  fhall  give  fome  account  of  the  truly 
wonderful  operations  of  the  termites,  which  are  generally 
called  white-ants  *,  though  they  belong  to  a  different  ge- 
nus of  infects.  Thefe  animals  infefl  Guinea,  and  all  the 
tropical  regions,  where,  for  their  depredations  of  pro- 
perty, they  are  greatly  dreaded  by  the  inhabitants  ;  from 
which  circumflance  they  have  received  the  name  of  Fa- 
tails,  or  Dejlruftor. 

The  following  abridged  account  of  the  termites,  and  of 
the  wonderful  habitations  they  build,  is  felecled  from  an 
excellent  defcription  of  them  in  a  Letter  from  Mr.  Henry 
Smeathman,  of  Clement's  Inn,  to  Sir  Jofeph  Banks,  which 
was  publifhed  in  the  Philofophical  Tranfaclions  f .  Though 
the  nefls,  or  rather  hills,  conflru&ed  by  the  termites, 
are  mentioned  by  many  travellers,  their  defcriptions  and 
obfervations  are  by  no  means  fo  accurate  as  thofe  of  the 

ingenious 

:  In  the  windward  parts  of  Africa,  they  are  denominated  bugga,  buggs;  in 
the  Weft-Indies,  tvood-lice,  wood-ants,  or  white-ants.  They  are  likewife  called 
piercers,  eaters,  or  cutters,  becaufe  they  cut  almoft  every  thing  in  pieces.  S. 

r  Vol.  71.  part,  i.  page  139.     S. 


324  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

ingenious  Mr.  Smeathman.  Of  thefe  infects  there  are 
feveral  fpecies  ;  but  they  all  refemble  each  other  in  form, 
and  in  their  manner  of  living.  They  differ,  however,  as 
much  as  birds,  in  the  ftile  of  their  architecture,  and  in 
the  feleftion  of  the  materials  of  which  their  nefts  are 
compofed.  Some  build  on  the  furface,  or  partly  above 
and  partly  below  the  ground,  and  others  on  the  trunks 
or  branches  of  lofty  trees. 

Before  defcribing  the  nefts  or  hills,  it  is  neceflfary  to 
give  fome  idea  of  the  animals  themfelves,  and  of  their 
general  ceconomy  and  manners.  We  (hall  confine  our- 
felves  to  that  fpecies  called  termites  bellicofi,  or  fighter  s^ 
becaufe  they  are  largeft,  and  befl  known  on  the  coaft  of 
Africa. 

The  republic  of  the  termites  bellicofi^  like  the  other  fpe- 
cies of  this  genus,  confifls  of  three  ranks,  or  orders  of 
infects :  i.  The  working  infects,  which  Mr.  Smeathman 
diilinguifhes  by  the  name  of  labourers ;  2.  The  fighters, 
or  foldiers^  which  perform  no  kind  of  labour ;  and,  3. 
The  winged,  or  perfett  infefts,  which  are  male  and  fe- 
male, and  capable  of  multiplying  the  fpecies.  Thefe  iaft 
Mr.  Smeathman  calls  the  nobility  or  gentry  ;  becaufe  they 
neither  labour  nor  fight.  The  nobility  alone  are  capable 
of  being  raifed  to  the  rank  of  kings  and  queens.  A  few 
weeks  after  their  elevation  to  this  ftate,  they  emigrate, 
in  order  to  eflablifh  new  empires. 

In  a  neft  or  hill,  the  labourers,  or  working  infects, 
are  always  moft  numerous :  There  are  at  leaft  one  hun- 
dred labourers  to  one  of  the  fighting  infects  or  foldiers. 
When  in  this  ftate,  they  are  about  a  fourth  of  an  inch 
in  length,  which  is  rather  fmaller  than  fome  of  our  ants. 
From  their  figure,  and  fondnefs  for  wood,  they  are  very 
generally  known  by  the  name  of  wood-lice. 

The  fecond  order,  or  foldiers,  differ  in  figure  from 
that  of  the  labourers.  The  former  have  been  fuppofed 
to  be  neuters,  and  the  latter  males.  But,  in  fact,  they 
are  the  fame  infects.  They  have  only  undergone  a  change 
of  form,  and  made  a  nearer  approach  to  tlje  perfect  ftate. 
They  are  now  much  larger,  being  half  an  inch  in  length, 
and  equal  in  fize  to  fifteen  of  the  labourers.  The  form 

of 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.        325 

of  the  head  is  likewife  greatly  changed.  In  the  labourer 
flate,  the  mouth  is  evidently  formed  for  gnawing  or 
holding  bodies  :  But,  in  the  foldier  flate,  the  jaws  being 
fhaped  like  two  fharp  awls  a  little  jagged,  are  deftined 
folely  for  piercing  or  wounding.  For  thefe  purpofes  they 
are  very  well  calculated ;  for  they  are  as  hard  as  a  crab's 
claw,  and  placed  in  a  flrong  horny  head,  which  is  of  a 
nut-brown  colour,  and  larger  than  the  whole  body. 

The  figure  of  the  third  order,  or  that  of  the  infect  in 
its  perfect  flate,  is  flill  more  changed.  The  head,  the 
thorax,  and  the  abdomen,  differ  almofl  entirely  from  the 
fame  parts  in  the  labourers  and  foldiers.  Befide,  the 
animals  are  now  furnifhed  with  four  large,  brownifh, 
tranfparent  wings,  by  which  they  are  enabled,  at  the 
proper  feafon,  to  emigrate  anil  to  eflablifh  new  fettlements. 
In  the  winged  or  perfect  (late,  they  have  likewife  acquired 
the  organs  of  generation,  and  are  greatly  altered  in  their 
fize  as  well  as  in  their  figure.  Their  bodies  now  meafure 
between  fix  and  feven  tenths  of  an  inch,  their  wings, 
from  tip  to  tip,  above  two  inches  and  a  half,  and  their 
bulk  is  equal  to  that  of  thirty  labourers,  or  two  foldiers. 
Inflead  of  active,  induftrious,  and  rapacious  little  animals, 
when  they  arrive  at  their  perfect  flate,  they  become  inno- 
cent, helplefs,  and  daftardly.  Their  numbers  are  great ; 
but  their  enemies  are  flill  more  numerous.  They  are 
devoured  by  birds,  by  every  fpecies  of  ants,  by  carnivorous 
reptiles,  and  even  by  the  inhabitants  of  many  parts  of 
Africa.  This  laft  fact  is  attefted  by  Pifo,  Margraave, 
De  Laet,  Konig,  Moor,  Sparman,  and  by  many  other 
travellers,  as  well  as  by  Smeathman.  After  fuch  devaf- 
tation,  it  is  furprifing  that  a  fingle  pair  fhould  efcape  fo 
many  dangers.  '  Some,  however/  fays  Mr.  Smeathman, 
<  are  fo  fortunate ;  and  being  found  by  fome  of  the  la- 
6  bouring  infects,  that  are  continually  running  about  the 
c  furface  of  the  ground  under  their  covered  galleries,  are 
elefted  Kings  and  Queens  of  new  flates  ;  all  thofe  who  are 
not  fo  elected  and  preferved  certainly  perifh.  The  man- 
ner in  which  thtefe  labourers  protect  the  happy  pair  from 
their  innumerable  enemies,  not  only  on  the  day  of  the 
ruaflacre  of  almoft  all  their  race,  but  for  a  long  time 

6  after, 


326"  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

*  after,  will,  I  hope,  juftify  me  in  the  ufe  of  the  term 

*  election.     The  little  induftrious   creatures  immediately 

*  inclofe  them  in  a  fmall  chamber  of  clay  fuitable  to  their 

*  fize,  into  which,  at  firft,  they  leave  but  one  fmall  en- 

*  trance,  large  enough  for  themfelves  and  the  foldiers  to 

*  go  in  and  out,  but  much   too   little  for  either  of  the 
4  royal  pair  to  make  ufe  of;  and  when  neceflity  obliges 
4  them  to  make  more  entrances,  they  are  never  larger ; 

*  fo  that,  of  courfe,  the  voluntary  fubjefts  charge  them- 

*  felves  with  the  tafk  of  providing  for  the  offspring  of 

*  their  fovereigns,  as  well  as  to  work  and  to  fight  for 
4  them,  until  they  have  raifed  a  progeny  capable  at  lead 

*  of  dividing  the  talk  with  them. 

6  It  is  not  till  this,  probably,  that  they  confummate 

*  their  marriage,  as  I  never  faw  a  pair  of  them  joined. 
4  The  bufinefs  of  propagation,  however,  foon  commences; 

*  and  the  labourers  having  conftru&ed  a  fmall  wooden  nur- 

*  fery,  carry  the  eggs  and  lodge  them  there  as  faft  as  they 
4  can  obtain  them  from  the  queen. 

6  About  this  time  a  mod  extraordinary  change  begins 

*  to  take  place  in  the  queen,  to  which  I  know   nothing 

*  fimilar,  except  in  the  pulex  penetrans  of  Linnaeus,  the 
'jigger  of  the  Weft-Indies,  and  in  the  different  fpecies 

*  of  coccus,  cochineal.    The  abdomen  of  this  female  begins 
6  gradually  to  extend  and  enlarge  to  fuch  an   enormous 

*  fize,  that  an  old  queen  will  have  it  increafed  fo  as  to   be 
''fifteen  hundred  or  two  thoufand  times  the  bulk  of  the  reft 
4  of  her  body,  and  twenty  or  thirty  thoufand  times  the  bulk 
6  of  a  labourer,  as  I  have  found   by  carefully  weighing 
4  and  computing  the  different  ftates.     The  Ikin  between 
4  the  fegments  of  the  abdomen  extends  in  every  dire&ion; 
4  and  at  laft  the  fegments  are  removed  to  half  an  inch 

*  diftance  from  each  other,  though,  at  firft,  the  length  of 

*  the  whole  abdomen  is  not  half  an  inch.     I  conjecture 
4  the  animal  is  upwards  of  two  years  old  when  the  abdo- 
4  men  is  increafed  to  three  inches  in  length  :  I  have  fome- 
4  times  found  them  of  near  twice  that  fize.     The  abdo- 
4  men  is  now  of  an  irregular  oblong  fhape,  being  con- 

*  tracked  by  the  mufcles  of  every  fegment,  and  is  become 
6  one  vaft  matrix  full  of  eggs,  which  make  long  circum- 

*  volutions 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.        327 

volutions  through  an  innumerable  quantity  of  very 
minute  veflels  that  circulate  round  the  infide  in  a  fer- 
pentine  manner,  which  would  exercife  the  ingenuity  of 
a  Ikilful  anatomift  to  difleft  and  develope.  This  fingu- 
lar  matrix  is  not  more  remarkable  for  its  amazing  ex- 
tenfion  and  fize  than  for  its  periflaltic  motion,  which 

*  refembles  the  undulating  of  waves,  and  continues  incef- 
'  fantly  without  any  apparent  effort  of  the  animal ;  fo 
'  that  one  part  or  other,  alternately,  is  rifmg  and  finking 
6  in  perpetual  fucceffion,  and  the  matrix  feems  never  at 
'  reft,  but  is  always  protruding  eggs  to  the  amount  (as  I 
6  have  frequently  counted  in  old  queens)   of  fixty  in  a 

*  minute,  or  eighty  thoufand  and  upward  in  one  day  of 
4  twenty-four  hours. 

6  Thefe  eggs  are  inftantly  taken  from  her  body  by  her 
c  attendants,  (of  whom  there  always  are,  in  the  royal 

*  chamber  and  the  galleries  adjacent,  a  fufficient  number 

*  waiting),  and  carried  to  the  nurferies,  which,  in  a  great 

*  neft,  may  fome  of  them  be  four  or  five  feet  diftant  in 

*  a  ftraight  line,  and,  confequently,  much  farther  by  their 

*  winding  galleries.     Here,  after  they  are  hatched,  the- 

*  young  are  attended    and  provided  with    every  thing 
6  neceffary  until  they  are  able  to  fhift  for  themfelves,  and 
'  take  their  mare  of  the  labours  of  the  community.' 

We  (hall  now  endeavour  to  give  fome  idea  of  the  al- 
moft  incredible  architecture  and  ceconomy  of  thefe  won- 
derful infeds. 

The  nefts  of  the  termites  falEcq/t,  or  wood-lice,  are  called 
hills  by  the  natives  of  Africa,  New  Holland,  and  other 
hot  climates.  This  appellation  is  highly  proper ;  for  they 
are  often  elevated  ten  or  twelve  feet  above  the  furface  of 
the  earth,  and  are  nearly  of  a  conical  figure.  Thefe 
hills,  inftead  of  being  rare  phenomena,  are  fo  frequent 
in  many  places  near  Senegal,  that,  as  defcribed  with  great 
propriety  by  Monf.  Adanfon,  their  number,  magnitude, 
and  clofenefs  of  iituation,  make  them  appear  like  villa- 
ges of  the  Negroes.  c  But,  of  all  the  extraordinary  things 
6  I  obferved,'  fays  Monf.  Adanfon,  '  nothing  flruck  me 

*  more  than  certain  eminences,  which,  by  their  height 

*  and  regularity,  made  me  take  them,  at  a  diftance,  for 

4  an 


328  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

*  an  aflemblage  of  Negro  huts,  or  a  confiderable  village, 
c  and  yet  they  were  only  the  neils   of  certain  infects. 

*  Thefe  nefts  are  round  pyramids,  from  eight  to  ten  feet 
6  high,  upon  nearly  the  fame  bafe,  with  a  fmooth  furface 
6  of  rich  <:lay,  exceflively  hard  and  well  built  V     Jobfon, 
in  his  hiftory  of  Gambia,  tells  us,  that  "  the  ant-hills 

*  are  remarkable  caft  up  in  thofe  parts  by  pifmires,  fome 
c  of  them  twenty  foot  in  height,  of  compafle  to  contayne 

*  a  dozen  of  men,  with  the  heat  of  the  fun  baked  into 

*  that  hardnefle,  that  we  ufed  to  hide  ourfelves  in  the 

*  ragged  toppes  of  them,  when  we  took  up  (lands  to  moot 

*  at  deere  or  wild  beads  -)-.'    Mr.  Bofman  remarks,  in  his 
defcription  of  Guinea,  that  "  the  ants  make  nefls  of  the 

*  earth  about  twice  the  height  of  a  man  J/ 

Each  of  thefe  hills  is  compofed  of  an  exterior  and  an 
interior  part.  The  exterior  cover  is  a  large  clay-fhell, 
which  is  fhaped  like  a  dome.  Its  ftrength  and  magnitude 
are  fufficient  to  inclofe  and  protect  the  interior  building 
from  the  injuries  of  the  weather,  and  to  defend  its  nu- 
merous inhabitants  from  the  attacks  of  natural  or  acci- 
dental enemies.  The  external  dome  or  cover  is,  there- 
fore, always  much  ftronger  than  the  internal  building, 
which  is  the  habitation  of  the  infects,  and  is  divided  with 
wonderful  artifice  and  regularity  into  a  vaft  number  of 
apartments  for  the  refidence  and  accommodation  of  the 
king  and  queen,  for  the  nurfmg  of  their  progeny,  and 
for  magazines,  which  are  always  well  ftored  with  pro- 
vifions. 

Thefe  hills  make  their  firft  appearance  in  the  form  of 
conical  turrets,  about  a  foot  high.  In  a  fhort  time,  the 
infects  erect,  at  a  little  diftance,  other  turrets,  and  go  on 
increafing  their  number  and  widening  their  bafes,  till  their 
underworks  are  covered  with  thefe  turrets,  which  the  ani- 
mals always  raife  highefl  in  the  middle  of  the  hill,  and, 
by  filling  up  the  intervals  between  each  turret,  collect 
them,  at  lail,  into  one  great  dome. 

c  The  royal  chamber,'  Mr.  Smeathman  remarks,  c  which 

'  is 

*  Adanfon'i  Voyage  to  Senegal,  8vo,  pag.  153, — 337,  Voyage  de  Senegal, 
410,  pag  83.  -99.  S. 

t  Purchas's  Pilgrams,  vol.  2.  pag,  1370.     5. 
+  Page  276.— 493.     S. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          329 

*  is  occupied  by  the  king  and  queen,  appears  to  be,  in 

*  the  opinion  of  this  little  people,  of  the  moft  confequence, 

*  and  is  always  fituated  as  near  the  center  of  the  interior 
«  building  as  poffible,  and  generally  about  the  height  of 
4  the  common  furface  of  the  ground.     It  is  always  nearly 

*  in  the  fhape  of  half  an  egg,  or  an  obtufe  oval,  within, 

*  and  may  be  fuppofed  to  reprefent  a  long  oven.     In  the 
4  infant  ftate  of  the  colony,  it  is  not  above  an  inch,  or 
€  thereabouts,  in  length  ;  but  in  time  will  be  increafed  to 
4  fix  or  eight  inches,  or  more,  in  the  clear,  being  always 

*  in  proportion  to  the  fize  of  the  queen,  who,  increafing 

*  in  bulk  as  in  age,  at  length  requires  a  chamber  of  fuch 

*  dimenfions.' 

The  entrances  into  the  royal  chamber  will  not  admit 
any  animal  larger  than  the  foldiers  or  labourers.  Hence 
the  king  and  the  queen,  which  laft,  when  full  grown,  is  a 
thoufand  times  the  weight  of  a  king,  can  never  poflibly 
go  out.  The  royal  chamber  is  fur  rounded  by  an  innu- 
merable quantity  of  others,  which  are  of  different  fizes, 
figures,  and  dimenfions  ;  but  all  of  them  are  arched  either 
in  a  circular  or  an  elliptical  form.  Thefe  chambers  either 
open  into  each  other,  or  have  communicating  pafiages, 
which ^being  always  clear,  are  evidently  intended  for  the 
conveniency  of  the  foldiers  and  attendants,  of  whom,  as 
will  foon  appear,  great  numbers  are  neceflary.  Thefe 
apartments  are  joined  by  the  magazines  and  nurferies. 
The  magazines  are  chambers  of  clay,  and  are  at  all  times 
well  ftored  with  provifions,  which,  to  the  naked  eye, 
feem  to  confift  of  the  rafpings  of  wood  and  plants  which 
the  termites  deflroy  j  but,  when  examined  by  the  micro- 
fcope,  they  are  found  to  coniift  chiefly  of  the  gums  or 
infpiffated  juices  of  plants,  thrown  together  in  fmall  irre- 
gular mafles.  Of  thefe  mafles,  fome  are  finer  than  others, 
and  refemble  the  fugar  about  preferved  fruits ;  others  re- 
femble  the  tears  of  gum,  one  being  quite  tranfparent, 
another  like  amber,  a  third  brown,  and  a  fourth  perfectly 
opaque. 

The  magazines  are  always  intermixed  with  the  nurfe* 
Ties,  which  laft  are  buildings  totally  different  from  the  reft 
of  the  apartments.  They  are  compofed  entirely  of  wooden 

T  t  materials, 


330  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

'materials,  which  feem  to  be  cemented  with  gums.  Mr. 
Smeathman  very  properly  gives  them  the  appellation  of 
nurf  cries  ;  becaufe  they  are  invariably  occupied  by  the 
eggs,  and  the  young  ones,  which  firir,  appear  in  the  fhape 
of  labourers  ;  but  they  are  as  white  as  fnow.  Thefe  build- 
ings are  exceedingly  compacl,  and  are  divided  into  a 
number  of  fmall  irregular-fhaped  chambers,  not  one  of 
which  is  half  an  inch  wide.  They  are  placed  all  round, 
and  as  near  as  poffible  to  the  royal  apartments. 

When  a  neft  or  hillock  is  in  the  infant  date,  the  nur- 
feries  are  clofe  to  the  royal  apartment.  But  as,  in  procefs 
of  time,  the  body  of  the  queen  enlarges,  it  becomes,  ne- 
celTary,  for  her  accommodation,  to  augment  the  dirnenfi- 
ons  of  her  chamber.  She  then,  likewife,  lays  a  greater 
number  of  eggs,  and  requires  more  attendants  ;  of  courfe, 
It  is  necelfary  that  both  the  number  and  dimenfions  of 
the  adjacent  apartments  fhould  be  augmented.  For  this 
purpofe,  the  fmall  rlril  -built  nurieries  are  taken  to  pieces, 
rebuilt  a  little  farther  off,  made  a  fize  larger,  and  their 
number,  at  the  fame  time,  is  increafed.  Thus  the  ani- 
mals are  continually  employed  in  pulling  down,  repair- 
ing, or  rebuilding  their  apartments  j  and  thefe  operations 
they  perform  with  wonderful  fagacity,  regularity,  and 
fprefight. 

One  remarkable  circumflance  regarding  the  nurferies 
mull  not  be  omitted.  They  are  always  flightly  overgrown 
with  a  kind  of  mould,  and  plentifully  fprinkled  with  white 
globules  about  the  fize  of  a  fmall  pin's  head.  Thefe  glo- 
bules, Mr.  Smeathman  at  firil  conjectured  to  be  the  eggs  ; 
but,  when  examined  by  the  microfcope,  they  evidently  ap- 
peared to  be  a  fpecies  of  mumroom,  in  fhape  refembling 
our  eatable  mufhroom  when  young.  When  entire,  they 
are  white  like  fnow  a  little  melted  and  frozen  again  ; 
and,  when  bruifed,  they  feem  to  be  compofed  of  an  infi- 
nite number  of  pellucid  particles,  approaching  to  oval 
forms,  and  are  with  difficulty  feparated  from  each  other. 
The  mouldinefs  feems  likewife  to  confift  of  the  fame  kind 
of  fubftance  *. 


Mr.  Koni£,  -who  examined  the  termites  nefis  in  the  Ea^-Indies,  conjectures, 
that  thefe  tnuftuooms  are  the  food  of  the  young  infefts.    This  fuppofition  implies, 

that 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  331 

The  nurferies  are  inclofed  in  chambers  of  clay,  like 
thofe  which  contain  the  provifions  ;  but  they  are  much 
larger.  In  the  early  ftate  of  the  neft,  they  are  not  bigger 
than  an  hazel  nut ;  but,  in  great  hills,  they  are  often  as 
large  as  a  child's  head  of  a  year  old. 

The  royal  chamber  is  fituated  nearly  on  a  level  with 
the  furface  of  the  ground,  at  an  equal  diitance  from  all 
the  fides  of  the  building,  and  directly  under  the  apex  of 
the  hill.  On  all  fides,  both  above  and  below,  it  is  fur- 
rounded  by ,  what  are  called  the  royal  apartments ,  which 
contain  only  labourers  and  foldiers,  who  can  be  intended 
for  no  other  purpofe  than  to  continue  in  the  neft  either  to 
guard  or  ferve  their  common  father  and  mot  her  ^  on  whofe 
iafety  the  happinefs,  and,  in  the  eftimation  of  the  Negroes, 
the  exiftence,  of  the  whole  community  depends.  Thefe 
apartments  compofe  an  intricate  labyrinth,  which  extends 
a  foot  or  more  in  diameter  from  the  royal  chamber  on 
every  fide.  Here  the  nurferies  and  magazines  of  provifions 
begin  ;  and,  being  feparated  by  fmall  empty  chambers  and 
galleries,  which  furround  them,  and  communicate  with 
each  other,  are  continued  on  all  fides  to  the  outward  (hell, 
and  reach  up  within  it  two-thirds  or  three-fourths  of  its 
height,  leaving  an  open  area  in  the  middle  under  the  dome, 
which  refembles  the  nave  of  an  old  cathedral.  This  area 
is  furrounded  by  large  Gothic  arches,  which  are  fome- 
times  two  or  three  feet  high  next  the  front  of  the  area, 
but  diminifh  rapidly  as  they  recede,  like  the  arches  of 
aiiles  in  perfpeclives,  and  are  foon  loft  among  the  innu- 
merable chambers  and  nurferies  behind  them.  All  thefa 
chambers  and  paffages  are  arched,  and  contribute  mutu- 
ally to  fupport  one  another.  The  interior  building,  or 
affemblage  of  nurferies,  chambers,  and  pafTages,  has  a 
flattifh  roof,  without  any  perforation.  By  this  contriv- 
ance, if,  by  accident,  water  mould  penetrate  the  external 
dome,  the  apartments  below  are  prefer ved  from  injury. 
The  area  has  alfo  a  flattifh  floor,  which  is  fituated  above 

the 

that  the  old  ones  have  a  method  of  providing  for  and  promoting  the  growth  of 
the  mumroom  ;  '  a  circumftance,'  Mr.  Smeathman  remarks,   *  which,    however 

*  ftrange  to  thole  unacquainted  with  the  fagacity  of  thofe  infe&s,  I  will  venture 

*  to  fay,  fiom  many  other  extraordinary  fafls  I  have  feen  of  them,  is  not   v«ry 

*  improbable/     S. 


332  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

the  royal  chamber.  It  is  likewife  water-proof,  and  fa 
conftruded,  that,  if  water  gets  admittance,  it  runs  off  by 
fubterraneous  pafTages,  which  are  of  an  aftoniming  mag- 
nitude. '  I  meafured  one  of  them,'  fays  Mr.  Smeathman, 
<  which  was  perfectly  cylindrical,  and  thirteen  inches  in 

*  diameter/    Thefe  fubterraneous  paffages  are  thickly  lin- 
ed with  the  fame  kind  of  clay  of  which  the  hill  is  com- 
pofed,  afcend  the  internal  part  of  the  external  mell  in  a 
ipiral  form,  and,  winding  round  the  whole  building  up 
to  the  top,  interfecl:  and  communicate  with  each  other 
at  different  heights.     From  every  part  of  thefe  large  gal- 
leries a  number  of  pipes,  or  fmaller  galleries,  leading  to 
different  parts  of  the  building,  proceed.     There  are  like- 
wife a  great  many  which  lead  downward,  by  floping  de- 
fcents,  three  and  four  feet  perpendicular  under  ground, 
among  the  gravel,  from  which  the  labouring  termites  fe- 
lecl:  the  finer  parts,  which,  after  being  worked  up  in  their 
mouths  to  the  confidence  of  mortar,  become  that  folid 
clay  or  ftone  of  which  their  hills,  and  every  apartment  of 
their  buildings,  except  the  nurferies,  are  compofed.   Other 
galleries  afcend  and  lead  out  horizontally  on  every  fide, 
and  are  carried  under  ground,  but  near  the  furface,  to 
great  diftances.     Suppofe  the  whole  nefts  within  a  hun- 
dred yards  of  a  houfe  were  completely  deftroyed,  the  in- 
habitants of  thofe  at  a  greater  diftance  will  carry  on  their 
fubterraneous  galleries,  and  invade  the  goods  and  merchan- 
dizes contained  in  it  by  fap  and  mine,  unlefs  great  atten- 
tion and  circumfpedion  are  employed  by  the  proprietor. 

Mr.  Smeathman  concludes  his  defcription  of  the  habi- 
tations of  the  termites  belllcofi^  with  much  modefty,  in  the 
following  words :  c  Thus  I  have  defcribed,  as  briefly  as 

*  the  fubjed  would  admit,  and  I  truft  without  exaggera- 

*  ration,  thofe  wonderful  buildings,  whofe  fize,  and  ex- 

*  ternal  form,  have  often  been  mentioned   by  travellers, 

*  but  whofe  interior,  and  moft  curious  parts  are  fo  little 

*  known,  that  I  may  venture  to  confider  my  account  of 
c  them  as  new,  which  is  the  only  merit  it  has ;  for  they 

*  are  conftruded  upon  fo  different  a  plan  from  any  thing 

*  elfe  upon  the  earth,  and  fo  complicated,  that  I  cannot 

*  find  words  equal  to  the  tafk.' 

When 


OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.        335 

When  a  breach  is  made  in  one  of  the  hills  by  an  ax, 
or  other  inftrument,  the  firft  objeft  that  attrads  attention 
is  the  behaviour  of  the  foldiers,  or  fighting  infeds.  Im- 
mediately after  the  blow  is  given,  a  foldier  comes  out, 
walks  about  t{ie  breach,  and  feems  to  examine  the  nature 
of  the  enerfiy,  or  the  caufe  of  the  attack.  He  then  goes 
in  to  the  hill,  gives  the  alarm,  and,  in  a  fhort  time,  large 
bodies  rufh  out  as  fafl  as  the  breach  will  permit.  It  is 
not  eafy  to  defcribe  the  fury  thefe  fighting  infeds  difcover. 
In  their  eagernefs  to  repel  the  enemy,  they  frequently 
tumble  down  the  fides  of  the  hill,  but  recover  themfelves 
very  quickly,  and  bite  every  thing  they  encounter.  This 
biting,  joined  to  the  ftriking  of  their  forceps  upon  the 
building,  makes  a  crackling  or  vibrating  noife,  which 
is  fomewhat  fhriller  and  quicker  than  the  ticking  of  a 
watch,  and  may  be  heard  at  the  diftance  of  three  or  four 
feet.  While  the  attack  proceeds,  they  are  in  the  moft 
violent  buftle  and  agitation.  If  they  get  hold  of  any  part 
of  a  man's  body,  they  inftantly  make  a  wound,  which 
difcharges  as  much  blood  as  is  equal  to  their  own  weight. 
When  they  attack  the  leg,  the  flain  of  blood  upon  the 
flocking  extends  more  than  an  inch  in  width.  They 
make  their  hooked  jaws  meet  at  the  firft  ftroke,  and  never 
quit  their  hold,  but  fuffer  themfelves  to  be  pulled  away 
leg  by  leg,  and  piece  after  piece,  without  the  fmalleft  at- 
tempt to  efcape.  On  the  other  hand,  if  a  perfon  keeps 
out  of  their  reach,  and  gives  them  no  farther  difturbance, 
In  lefs  than  half  an  hour  they  retire  into  the  neft,  as  i£ 
they  fuppofed  the  wonderful  monfter  that  damaged  their 
caftle  had  fled.  Before  the  whole  foldiers  have  got  in, 
the  labouring  infeds  are  all  in  motion,  and  haften  toward 
the  breach,  each  of  them  having  a  quantity  of  tempered 
mortar  in  his  mouth.  This  mortar  they  flick  upon  the 
breach  as  fail  as  they  arrive,  and  perform  the  operation 
with  fo  much  difpatch  and  facility,  that,  notwithstanding 
the  immenfity  of  their  numbers,  they  never  flop  or  em- 
barrafs  one  another.  During  this  fcene  of  apparent  hurry 
and  confufion,  the  fpedator  is  agreeably  furprifed  when 
he  perceives  a  regular  wall  gradually  arifing  and  filling 
»p  the  chafm.  While  the  labourers  ate  thus  employed, 

glmoft 


334  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

almofl  all  the  foldiers  remain  within,  except  here  and 
there  one,  who  faunters  about  among  fix  hundred  or  a 
thoufand  labourers,  but  never  touches  the  mortar.  One 
foldier,  however,  always  takes  his  ftation  clofe  to  the 
wall  that  the  labourers  are  building.  This  foldier  turns 
himfelf  leifurely  on  all  fides,  and,  at  intervals  of  a  mi- 
nute or  two,  raifes  his  head,  beats  upon  the  building  with 
his  forceps,  and  makes  the  vibrating  noife  formerly  men- 
tioned. A  loud  hifs  inftantly  iffues  from  the  infide  of 
the  dome  and  all  the  fubterraneous -caverns  and  paffages. 
That  this  hifs  proceeds  from  the  labourers  is  apparent ; 
for,  at  every  fignal  of  this  kind,  they,  work  with  redoub- 
led quicknefs  and  alacrity.  A  renewal  of  the  attack, 
however,  inftantly  changes  the  fcene.  'On  the  firft 
'  ftroke,'  Mr.  Smeathman  remarks,  '  the  labourers  run 

*  into  the  many  pipes  and  galleries  with  which  the  build- 
6  ing  is  perforated,  which  they  do  fo  quickly,  that  they 

*  feem  to  vanifli ;  for  in  a  few  feconds  all  are  gone,  and 
6  the  foldiers  rum  out  as  numerous  and  as  vindictive  as 
'  before.    On  finding  no  enemy,  they  return  again  leifurely 

*  into  the  hill,  and,  very  foon  after,  the  labourers  appear 
'  loaded  as  at  firft,  as  active,  and  as  fedulous,  with  fol- 
«  diers  here  and  there  among   them,  who  act  juft  in  the 
€  fame  manner,  one  or   other  of  them 'giving  the  fignal 
c  to  haften  the  bufmefs.    Thus  the  pleafure  of  leeing  them 
c  come  out  to  fight  or  to  work,  alternately,  may  be  ob- 
c  tained  as  often  as  curiofity  excites,  or  time  permits,  j 
'and  it  will  certainly  be  found,  that  the  one  order  never 

*  attempts  to  fight,  or  the  other  to  work,  let  the  emer- 
c  gency  be  ever  fo  great.' 

It  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  explore  the  interior  parts 
of  &  neft  or  hill.  The  apartments  which  furround  the 
royal  chamber  and  the  nurferies,  and  indeed  the  whole 
fabrick,  have  fuch  a  dependence  on  each  other,  that  the 
breaking  of  one  arch  generally  pulls  down  two  or  three. 
There  is  another  great  obftacle  to  our  refearches,  namely, 
the  obftinacy  of  the  foldiers,  who,  fays  our  author,  c  fight 

*  to  the  very  laft,  difputing  every  inch  of  ground  fo  well 

*  as  often  to  drive  away  the  Negroes   who  are  without 
c  ihoes,  and  make  white  people  bleed  plentifully  through 

6  their 


OF    NATURAL-HISTORY.         335 

c  their  ftockings.  Neither  can  we  let  a  building  (land  fo 
c  as  to  get  a  view  of  the  interior  parts  without  interrup- 
6  tion  ;  for,  while  the  foldiers  are  defending  the  outworks, 
<  the  labourers  keep  barricading  all  the  way  againft  us, 
c  flopping  up  the  different  galleries  and  paffages  which 
fi  lead  to  the  various  apartments,  particularly  the  royal 
6  chamber,  all  the  entrances  to  which  they  fill  up  fo  art- 

*  fully  as  not  to  let  it  be  diftinguifhable  while  it  remains 
6  moid ;  and,  externally,  it  has  no  other  appearance  than 
'  that  of  a  ihapelefs  lump  of  clay.     It  is,  however,  eafily 

*  found  from  its  fituation  with  refpecl  to  the  other  parts 
'  of  the  building,  and  by  the  crowds   of  labourers  and 
c  foldiers  which  furround  it,  who  mow  their  loyalty  and 
6  fidelity  by  dying  under  its  walls.     The  royal  chamber, 

*  in  a  large  neft,  is  capacious  enough  to  hold  many  hun- 
c  dreds  of  the  attendants,  befides  the  royal  pair ;  and  you 
'  always  find  it  as  full  of  them  as  it   can  hold.     Thefe 
6  faithful  fubjecls  never  abandon  their  charge  even  in  the 

*  lad  diftrefs  ;  for,  whenever  I  took  out  the  royal  chain- 

*  ber,  and  as  I  often  did,  prefer ved  it   in  a  large  glais 

*  bowl,  all  the  attendants  continued  running  in  one  di- 
'  rection  round  the  king  and  queen  with  the  utmofl  fo- 
'  licitude,  fome  of  them  flopping  at  the  head  of  the  latter, 

*  as  if  to  give  her  fomething.     When  they  came  to  the 
c  extremity  of  the  abdomen,  they  took  the  eggs  from  her, 

*  and  carried  them  away,  and  piled  them  carefully  together 
c  in  fome  part  of  the  chamber,  or  in  the  bowl  under,  or 

*  behind  any  pieces  of  broken  clay  which  lay  moft  con- 

*  venient  for  the  purpofe.* 

In  this  chapter,  I  have  given  a  fuccincl:  view  of  the  fa- 
gacity,  dexterity,  and  architectonic  powers,  exhibited  in 
the  conftruction  of  habitations  by  the  different  clafles  of 
animals.  But  I  am  not  without  apprehenfions,  that,  in 
my  endeavours  to  avoid  prolixity,  I  may  have,  in  fome 
initances,  degenerated  into  obfcurity.  Enough,  however, 
I  hope,  has  been  faid,  either  for  the  purpofes  of  admira- 
tion or  of  reafoning;  and,  therefore,  I  lhall  not  antici- 
pate the  reflections  of  my  readers,  but  proceed  to  the  next 
fubjed. 

CHAP. 


53*  THE    PHILOSOPHY 


CHAPTER        XIV. 

Of  the  Hoftilities  of  Animals. 


IN  contemplating  the  fyftem  of  animation  exhibited  in 
this  planet,  the  only  one  of  which  we  have  any  ex- 
teniive  knowledge,  the  mind  is  ftruck,  and  even  confound- 
ed, with  the  general  fcene  of  havock  and  devaftation 
which  is  perpetually,  and  every  where,  prefented  to  our 
view.  There  is  not,  perhaps,  a  fmgle  fpecies  of  anima- 
ted beings,  whofe  exiftence  depends  not,  more  or  lefs, 
•upon  the  death  and  deftru&iou  of  others.  Every  ani- 
mal, when  not  prematurely  deprived  of  life  by  thofe  who 
are  hoflile  to  it,  or  by  accident,  enjoys  a  temporary  ex- 
iftence, the  duration  of  which  is  longer  or  fhorter  ac- 
cording to  its  nature,  and  the  rank  it  holds  in  the  cre- 
ation 5  and  this  exiftence  univerfally  terminates  in  death 
and  difiblution.  This  is  an  eftablifhed  law  of  Nature,  to 
which  every  animal  is  obliged  to  fubrnit.  But  this  ne- 
ceffary  and  univerfal  deprivation  of  individual  life,  though 
great,  is  nothing  when  compared  to  the  havock  occafion- 
ed  by  another  law,  which  impels  animals  to  kill  and  de- 
vour different  fpecies,  and  fometimes  their  own.  In  the 
fyftem  of  Nature,  death  and  diffolution  feem  to  be  indif- 
penfible  for  the  fupport  and  continuation  of  animal  life. 
But,  though  almoft  every  animal,  in  fome  meafure, 
depends  for  its  exiftence  on  the  deftru&ion  of  others, 
there  are  fome  fpecies  in  all  the  different  tribes  or  clafles, 
which  are  diftinguifhed  by  the  appellation  of  carnivorous, 
or  rapacious,  becaufe  they  live  chiefly,  or  entirely,  on  ani- 
mal food-  In  the  profecution  of  this  fubjed,  therefore, 
we  (hall,  in  the  firft  place,  mention  fome  examples  of 
animal  hoftility  and  rapacity  ;  and,  in  the  next  place,  en^ 
deavour  to  point  out  fuch  advantages  as  refult  from  this 

apparently* 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.        337 

apparently-cruel  inftitution  of  Nature.  On  the  lail  branch 
of  the  fubjecl:,  however,  the  reader  muft  not  expect  to 
have  every  difficulty  removed,  and  every  queflion  folved. 
Like  all  the  other  parts  of  the  ceconomy  of  Nature,  the 
neceffity,  or  even  the  feeming  cruelty  and  injustice,  of 
allowing  animals  to  prey  upon  one  another,  is  a  myilery 
which  we  can  never  be  enabled  completely  to  unravel. 
But  we  are  not  entirely  without  hopes  of  mowing  feveral 
important  utilities  which  refult  from  this  almoft  univerfal 
fcene  of  animal  devaftation. 

Of  all  rapacious  animals,  Man  is  the  moft  univerfal 
deftroyer.  The  deflruclion  of  carnivorous  quadrupeds, 
birds,  and  infecls,  is,  in  general,  limited  to  particular 
kinds.  But  the  rapacity  of  man  has  hardly  any  limita- 
tion* His  empire  over  the  other  animals  which  inhabit 
this  globe  is  almoft  univerfal.  He  accordingly  employs 
his  power,  and  fubdues  or  devours  every  fpecies.  Of 
fome  of  the  quadruped  tribes,  as  the  horfe,  the  dog,  the 
cat,  he  makes  domeilic  flaves  ;  and  though  in  this  coun- 
try, none  of  thefe  fpecies  is  ufed  for  food,  he  either  ob- 
liges them  to  labour  for  him,  or  keeps  them  as  fources 
of  pleafure  and  amufement.  From  other  quadrupeds,  as 
the  ox,  the  fheep,  the  goat,  and  the  deer  kind,  he  de- 
rives innumerable  advantages.  The  ox  kind  in  particu- 
lar, after  receiving  the  emoluments  of  their  labour  and 
fertility,  he  rewards  with  death,  and  then  feeds  upon 
their  carcafes.  Many  other  fpecies,  though  not  common- 
ly ufed  as  food,  are  daily  mafTacred  in  millions  for  the 
purpofes  of  commerce,  luxury,  and  caprice.  Myriads  of 
quadrupeds  are  annually  destroyed  for  the  fake  of  theirfurs, 
their  hides,  their  tufks,  their  odoriferous  fecretions,  &c. 

Over  the  feathered  tribes  the  dominion  of  man  is  not 
lefs  extenlive.  There  is  not  a  fmgle  fpecies  in  the  nu- 
merous and  diverfified  clafs  of  birds,  which  he  either 
does  not,  or  may  not,  employ  for  the  nourifliment  of 
his  body.  By  his  fagacity  and  addrefs  he  has  been  ena- 
bled t6  domefticate  many  of  the  more  prolific  and  delici- 
ous fpecies,  as  turkies,  geefe,  and  the  various  kinds  of 
poultry.  Thefe  he  multiplies  without  end,  and  devours 
at  pleafure. 

'**  U  u  Neither 


338  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

Neither  do  the  inhabitants  of  the  waters  efcape  the  ra- 
pacity of  man.  Rivers,  lakes,  and  even  the  ocean  itfelfy 
feel  the  power  of  his  empire,  and  are  forced  to  fupply 
him  with  provifions.  Neither  air  nor  water  can  defend 
againft  the  ingenuity,  the  art,  and  the  definitive  induftry 
ot  the  human  fpecies,  Man  may  be  faid  even  to  have 
domefticated  fome  fiihes.  In  artificial  ponds,  he  feeds 
and  rears  carp,  tench,  perch,  trout,  and  other  fpecies, 
and  with  them  occafionally  furniflies  his  table. 

It  might  have  been  expecled,  that  infects  and  reptiles, 
fome  of  which  have  a  moil  difgufting  afpect,  would  not 
have  excited  the  human  appetite.  But  we  learn  from  ex- 
perience, that,  in  every  region  of  the  earth,  many  infects 
which  inhabit  both  the  earth  and  the  waters,  are  efteern- 
ed  as  delicate  articles  of  luxury.  Even  the  viper,  though 
its  venom  be  deleterious,  efcapes  not  the  all-devouring 
jaws  of  man. 

Thus  man  holds,  and  too  often  exercifes,  a  tyrannical 
dominion  over  almoft  the  whole  brute  creation,  not  be- 
caufe  he  is  the  ftrongeft  of  all  animals,  but  becaufe  his 
intellect,  though  of  a  fimilar  nature,  is  vaftly  fuperior 
to  that  of  the  mod  fagacious  of  the  lefs  favoured  tribes. 
He  reigns  over  the  other  animals,  beeaufe,  like  them,  he 
is  not  only  endowed  with  fentiment,  but  becaufe  the  pow- 
ers of  his  mind  are  more  extenfive.  He  overcomes  force 
by  ingenuity,  and  fwiftnefs  by  art  and  perfevering  induf- 
try. But  the  empire  of  man  over  the  brute  creation  is- 
not  abfolute.  Some  fpecies  elude  his  power  by  the  rapi- 
dity of  their  flight,  by  the  fwiftnefs  of  their  courfe,  by 
the  obfcurity  of  their  retreats,  and  by  the  element  in 
which  they  live.  Others  efcape  him  by  the  minutenefs 
of  their  bodies  \  and,  inftead  of  acknowledging  their  fcv 
n,  others  boldly  attack  him  with  open  hoftility. 
alfo  inful ted  and  injured  by  the  (lings  of  infects, 
v  the  poifonous  bites  of  ferpents.  In  other  refpecls, 
empire,  though  comparatively  great,  is  very  much 
d.  He  has  no  influence  on  the  univerfe,  on  the 
;ons  and  affeclions  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  or  on  the 
revolutions  of  the  globe  which  he  inhabits.  Neither  has 
he  a  general  dominion  over  animals,  vegetables,  or  mi- 
nerals. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.        339 

nerals.  His  power  reaches  not  fpecies,  but  is  confined 
to  individuals.  Every  order  of  being  moves  on  in  its 
courfe,  perifhes,  or  is  renewed,  by  the  irrefiftible  power 
of  Nature.  Even  man  himfelf,  hurried  along  by  the  ge- 
neral torrent  of  time  and  of  Nature,  cannot  prolong  his 
exiflence.  He  is  obliged  to  fubmit  to  the  univerfal  law ; 
and,  like  all  other  organized  beings,  he  is  born,  grows 
to  maturity,  and  dies.  Though  man  has  been  enabled 
to  fubdue  the  animal  creation  by  the  fuperior  powers  of 
his  mind,  his  empire,  like  all  other  empires,  could  not 
be  firmly  eflablifhed  previous  to  the  inftitution  of  pretty 
numerous  focieties.  Almoft  the  whole  of  his  power  is 
derived  from  fociety.  It  matures  his  reafon,  gives  exer- 
tion to  his  genius,  and  unites  his  forces.  Before  the  for- 
mation of  large  focieties,  man  was  perhaps  the  mofl  help- 
lefs  and  the  leafl  formidable  of  all  animals.  Naked,  and 
deflitute  of  arms,  to  him  the  earth  was  only  an  immenfe 
defart  peopled  with  flrong  and  rapacious  monllers,  by 
whom  he  was  often  devoured.  Even  long  after  this  pe- 
riod, hiftory  informs  us,  that  the  firft  heroes  were  de- 
flroyers  of  wild  beads.  But,  after  the  human  fpecies  had 
multiplied,  and  fpread  over  the  earth,  and  when,  by 
means  of  fociety  and  the  arts,  man  was  enabled  to  con- 
quer a  confideiable  part  of  the  globe,  he  forced  the  wild 
beafls  gradually  to  retire  to  the  defarts.  He  cleared  the 
earth  of  thofe  gigantic  animals  who,  perhaps,  now  no 
longer  exiil,  but  whofe  enormous  bones  are  ftill  found  in 
different  regions,  and  are  preferved  in  the  cabinets  of  the 
curious.  He  reduced  the  numbers  of  the  voracious  and 
noxious  fpecies.  He  oppofed  the  powers  and  the  dexte- 
rity of  one  animal  to  thofe  of  another.  Some  he  fubdued 
by  addrefs,  and  others  by  force.  In  this  manner  he,  in 
procefs  of  time,  acquired  to  himfelf  perfect  fecurity,  and 
eflablifhed  an  empire  that  has  no  other  limits  than  inac- 
ceflible  folitudes,  burning  fands,  frozen  mountains,  or 
obfcure  caverns,  which  are  occupied  as  retreats  by  a  few 
fpecies  of  ferocious  animals. 

.  Next  to  man,  the  carnivorous  quadrupeds  are  the  mofl 
numerous  and  the  mod  deflru&ive.  Different  parts  of 
the  earth  are  infefted  with  lions,  tigers,  panthers,  ounces, 

leopards, 


340  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

leopards,  jaguars,  couguars,  lynxes,  wild  cats,  dogs,  jack* 
als,  wolves,  foxes,  hyaenas,  civets,  genets,  polecats,  mar- 
tins, ferrets,  ermines,  gluttons,  bats,  &c.  Though  all 
thefe,  and  many  other  tribes  of  quadrupeds,  live  folely 
upon  blood  and  carnage,  yet  fome  of  them,  as  the  tiger, 
the  wolf,  the  hyaena,  and  many  other  inferior  fpecies, 
are  much  more  rapacious  and  deftrudive  than  others. 
The  lion,  though  furrounded  with  prey,  kills  no  more 
than  he  is  able  to  confume.  But  the  tiger  is  grofsly  fe- 
rocious, and  cruel  without  neceffity.  Though  fatiated 
with  carnage,  he  perpetually  thirds  for  blood.  His  reft- 
lefs  fury  has  no  intervals,  except  when  he  is  obliged  to 
lie  in  ambufh  for  prey  at  the  fides  of  lakes  or  rivers,  to 
which  other  animals  refort  for  drink.  He  feizes  and  tears 
in  pieces  a  frefh  animal  with  equal  rage  as  he  exerted  in 
devouring  the  firft.  He  defolates  every  country  that  he  in- 
habits, and  dreads  neither  the  afpecl  nor  the  arms  of  man. 
He  facrifices  whole  flocks  of  domeftic  animals,  and  all 
the  wild  beafts  which  come  within  the  reach  of  his  ter- 
rible claws.  He  attacks  the  young  of  the  elephant  and 
rhinoceros,  and  fometimes  even  ventures  to  brave  the  li- 
on. His  predominant  inflmcl:  is  a  perpetual  rage,  a  blind 
and  undiftinguifhing  ferocity,  which  often  impel  him  to 
devour  his  own  young,  and  to  tear  their  mother  in  pieces 
when  fhe  attempts  to  defend  them.  He  delights  in  blood, 
and  gluts  himfelf  with  it  till  he  is  intoxicated.  He  tears 
the  body  for  no  other  purpofe  than  to  plunge  his  head 
into  it,  and  to  drink  large  draughts  of  blood,  the  fources 
of  which  are  generally  exhaufted  before  his  thirfl  is  ap- 
peafed.  The  tiger  is  perhaps  the  only  animal  whofe  fe- 
rocity is  unconquerable.  Neither  violence,  reftraint,  nor 
bribery,  have  any  effect  in  foftening  his  temper.  With 
harm  or  gentle  treatment  he  is  equally  irritated.  The 
mild  and  conciliating  influence  of  fociety  makes  no  im- 
preflion  on  the  obduracy  and  incorrigiblenefs  of  his  dif- 
pofition.  Time,  inftead  of  foftening  the  ferocioufnefs 
of  his  nature,  only  exafperates  his  rage.  He  tears,  with 
equal  wrath,  the  hand  which  feeds  him,  as  that  which 
is  raifed  to  ftrike  him.  He  roars  and  grins  at  the  fight 
pf  every  living  being.  Every  animated  object  he  regards 

as 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.        341 

as  a  frefh  prey,  which  he  devours  before  hand  with  the 
avidity  of  his  eyes,  menaces  it  with  frightful  groans,  and 
often  fprings  at  it,  without  regarding  his  chains,  which 
only  reilrain,  but  cannot  calm,  his  fury. 

In  temperate  climates,  the  wolf  feems  to  exceed  all 
other  animals  in  the  ferocity  and  rapacioufnefs  of  his  dif- 
pofition.  When  prefled  with  hunger,  he  braves  every 
danger.  He  attacks  all  thofe  animals  which  are  under 
the  protection  of  man,  efpecially  fuch  as  he  can  c~.rry 
off  with  eafe,  as  lambs,  kids,  and  the  fmaller  kinds  of 
dogs.  When  fuccefsful  in  his  expeditions,  he  returns 
often  to  the  charge,  till,  after  being  chaced  and  wounded 
by  men  and  dogs,  he  retires,  during  the  day,  to  his  den. 
In  the  night  he  again  iifues  forth,  traverfes  the  country, 
roams  round  the  cottages,  kills  all  the  animals  that  have 
been  left  without,  digs  the  earth  under  the  doors,  enters 
with  a  terrible  ferocity,  and  puts  every  living  creature  to 
death,  before  he  choofes  to  depart,  and  carry  off  his  prey. 
When  thefe  inroads  happen  to  be  fruitlefs,  he  returns  to 
the  woods,  fearches  about  with  avidity,  follows  the  track 
and  the  fcent  of  wild  beads,  and  purfues  them  till  they 
fall  a  prey  to  his  rapacity.  In  a  word,  when  his  hunger 
is  extreme,  he  lofes  all  idea  of  fear,  attacks  women  and 
children,  and  fometimes  men  ;  at  laft  he  becomes  per- 
fectly furious  by  exceffive  exertions,  and  generally  falls  a 
facrifice  to  pure  rage  and  diftra&ion.  When  feveral 
wolves  appear  together,  it  is  not  an  afibciation  of  peace, 
but  of  war.  It  is  attended  with  tumult  and  dreadful 
growlings,  and  indicates  an  attack  upon  fome  of  the  lar- 
ger animals,  as  a  flag,  an  ox,  or  a  formidable  maftirT. 
This  depredatory  expedition  is  no  fooner  ended  than  they 
feparate,  and  every  individual  returns  in  filence  to  his  fo- 
litude.  Wolves  are  fond  of  human  flefh.  They  have 
been  known  to  follow  armies,  to  come  in  troops  to  the 
field  of  battle,  where  bodies  are  carelefsly  interred,  to 
tear  them  up,  and  to  devour  them  with  an  infatiable  avi- 
dity :  And,  when  once  accuflomed  to  human  flefh,  thefe 
wolves  ever  after  attack  men,  prefer  the  fhepherd  to  the 
flock,  devour  women,  and  carry  off  children.  Whole 
countries  are  fometimes  obliged  to  arm,  in  order  to  de- 

flroy 


342  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

ftroy  the  wolves.  It  is  a  fortunate  circumftance  that  thefe 
dangerous  and  deftructive  animals  have  been  long  totally 
extirpated  from  Great-Britain  and  her  iflands. 

Neither  are  the  feathered  tribes  exempted  from  the  ge- 
neral law  of  devaluation.  But  the  number  of  birds  of 
prey,  properly  fo  called,  is  much  lefs  in  proportion  than 
that  of  carnivorous  quadrupeds.  Birds  of  prey  are  like- 
wife  weaker  ;  and,  of  courfe,  the  definition  of  animal 
life  they  occafion  is  much  more  limited  than  the  immenfe 
devaftations  daily  committed  by  rapacious  quadrupeds. 
But,  as  if  tyranny  never  loft  fight  of  its  rights,  great 
numbers  of  birds  make  prodigious  depredations  upon  the 
inhabitants  of  the  waters.  A  vaft  tribe  of  birds  frequent 
the  waters,  and  live  folely  upon  fifties.  In  a  certain  fenfe, 
every  fpecies  of  bird  may  be  faid  to  be  a  bird  of  prey  ; 
for  almoft  the  whole  of  them  devour  flies,  worms,  and 
other  infects,  either  for  food  to  themfelves  or  their  young. 
Birds  of  prey,  like  carnivorous  quadrupeds,  are  not  fo 
prolific  as  the  milder  and  more  inoffenfive  kinds.  Moft  of 
them  lay  only  a  fmall  number  of  eggs.  The  great  eagle 
and  the  ofprey  produce  only  two  eggs  in  a  feafon.  The 
pigeon,  it  may  be  faid,  lays  no  more.  But  it  mould  be 
confidered,  that  the  pigeon  produces  two  eggs  three,  four, 
or  five  times,  from  fpring  to  autumn.  All  birds  of  prey 
exhibit  an  obduracy  and  a  ferocioufnefs  of  difpofition, 
while  the  other  kinds  are  mild,  chearful,  and  gentle,  in 
their  afpect  and  manners.  Moft  birds  of  prey  expel 
their  offspring  from  the  neft,  and  relinquifh  them  to  their 
fate,  before  they  are  fufficientiy  able  to  provide  for  them- 
felves. This  cruelty  is  the  effect  of  perfonal  want  in  the 
mother.  When  prey  is  fcanty,  which  often  happens,  me 
in  a  manner  ftarves  herfelf  to  fupport  her  young.  But, 
when  her  hunger  becomes  exceflive,  me  forgets  her  pa- 
rental affection,  ftrikes,  expels,  and  fometimes,  in  a  pa- 
roxyfm  of  fury  produced  by  want,  kills  her  offspring. 
An  averfion  to  fociety  is  another  effect  of  this  natural  and 
acquired  obduracy  of  temper.  Birds  of  prey,  as  well  as 
carnivorous  quadrupeds,  never  affociate.  Like  robbers, 
they  lead  a  folitary  and  wandering  life.  Mutual  attach- 
ment unites  the  male  and  the  female  j  and,  as  they  are 

both 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.        343 

both  capable  of  providing  for  themfelves,  and  can  give 
mutual  affiftance  in  .making  war  againil  other  animals, 
they  never  feparate,  even  after  the  feafon  of  love.  The 
fame  pair  are  uniformly  found  fn  the  fame  place  ;  but 
they  never  afiemble  in  flocks,  nor  even  aflbciate  in  fami- 
lies. The  larger  kinds,  as  the  eagles,  require  a  greater 
quantity  of  food,  and,  for  that  reafon,  never  allow  their 
own  offspring,  after  they  have  become  rivals,  to  approach 
the  places  which  the  parents  frequent.  But  all  thofe  birds, 
and  all  thofe  quadrupeds,  which  are  nourifhed  by  the 
productions  of  the  earth,  live  in  families,  are  fond  of  fo- 
ciety,  and  aflemble  in  numerous  flocks,  without  quarrel- 
ling or  difturbing  one  another. 

Both  the  earth  and  the  air  furnifh  examples  of  rapaci- 
ous animals.  In  thefe  elements,  however,  the  number  of 
carnivorous  animals  is  comparatively  fmall.  But  every 
inhabitant  of  the  waters  depends  for  its  exiftence  upon 
rapine  and  deftruction.  The  life  of  every  fijh^  from  the 
fmalleft  to  the  greateft,  is  one  continued  fcene  of  hoili- 
lity,  violence,  and  evafion.  Their  appetite  for  food  is  al- 
mofl  infatiable.  It  impels  them  to  encounter  every  dan- 
ger. They  are  in  continual  motion  ;  and  the  object  of  all 
their  movements  is  to  devour  other  fifhes,  or  to  avoid 
their  own  deftruction.  Their  defire  for  food  is  fo  keen 
and  undiftinguiftiing,  that  they  greedily  fwallow  every 
thing  which  has  the  appearance  of  animation.  Thofe 
that  have  fmall  mouths  feed  upon  worms  and  the  fpawn 
of  other  fifties  ;  and  thofe  whofe  mouths  are  larger  de- 
vour every  animal,  their  own  fpecies  not  excepted,  that 
can  pafs  through  their  gullet.  To  avoid  deftruction,  the 
fmaller  fry  retire  to  the  mallows,  where  the  larger  kinds 
are  unable  to  purfue  them.  But,  in  the  watery  element, 
no  fituation  is  abfolutely  fafe  ;  for,  even  in  the  mallows, 
the  oyfter,  the  fcallop,  and  the  mufcle,  lie  in  ambufh  at 
the  bottom,  with  their  (hells  open,  and,  when  a  fmall  fifh 
comes  into  contact  with  them,  they  inftantly  clofe  their 
fhells  upon  him,  and  devour  at  leifure  their  imprifoned 
prey.  Neither  is  the  hunting  or  purfuit  of  fifties  confin- 
ed to  particular  regions.  Shoals  of  one  fpecies  follow* 
with  unwearied  ardour,  thofe  of  another  through  vail 

tracts 


344  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

tracts  of  the  ocean.  The  cod  purfues  the  whiting  front 
the  banks  of  Newfoundland  to  the  fouthern  coafts  of 
Spain. 

It  is  a  remarkable  circumftance  in  the  hiflory  of  ani- 
mated Nature,  that  carnivorous  birds  and  quadrupeds  are 
lefs  prolific  than  the  inoffenfive  and  afTociating  kinds  ; 
but,  on  the  contrary,  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  waters, 
who  are  all  carnivorous,  are  endowed  with  a  moft  afto- 
nifhing  fecundity.  All  kinds  of  fifties,  a  few  only  except- 
cd,  are  oviparous.  Notwithstanding  the  amazing  deftruc- 
tion  of  their  eggs  by  the  fmaller  fry  that  frequent  the 
mores,  by  aquatic  birds,  and  by  the  larger  fifties,  the 
numbers  which  efcape  are  fufficient  to  fupply  the  ocean 
with  inhabitants,  and  to  afford  nourifhment  to  a  very 
great  portion  of  the  human  race.  A  cod,  for  inftance, 
according  to  the  accurate  computation  of  Lewenhoeck, 
produces,  from  one  roe,  above  nine  millions  of  eggs  in 
a  fingle  feafon.  The  flounder  lays  annually  above  one 
million,  and  the  mackarel  more  than  five  hundred  thou- 
fand  :  An  increafe  fo  great,  if  permitted  to  arrive  at  ma- 
turity, that  the  ocean  itfelf,  in  a  few  centuries,  would  not 
be  fpacious  enough  to  contain  its  animated  productions. 
This  wonderful  fertility  anfwers  two  valuable  purpofes. 
In  the  midft  of  numberlefs  enemies  it  continues  the  ref- 
pective  fpecies,  and  furnifhes  to  all  a  proper  quantity  of 
nouriftiment. 

We  have  thus  feen  that  man,  fome  quadrupeds,  fome 
birds,  and  all  fifties,  are  carnivorous  animals.  But  this 
fyftem  of  carnage  defcends  flill  lower.  Many  of  the  infed 
tribes  derive  their  nouriftiment  from  putrid  carcafes,  from 
the  bodies  of  living  animals,  or  from  killing  and  devour- 
ing weaker  fpecies.  How  many  flies  are  daily  facrificed 
by  fpiders,  a  moft  voracious  and  a  moil  numerous  tribe 
of  infects  ?  In  return,  fpiders  are  greedily  devoured  by 
flies  which  are  diftinguiflied  by  the  name  of  ichneumons. 
The  number  of  thefe  ichneumon  flies  is  inconceivable  ; 
and,  if  it  were  not  for  the  prodigious  havock  they  make 
upon  caterpillars  and  other  infects,  the  fruits  of  the  earth 
would  be  entirely  deftroyed.  Wafps  are  extremely  fond 
of  animal  food.  They  frequent  butchers  flails,  and  beat 

on 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          345 

off  the  flefh-fly,  and  every  other  infect  that  reforts  thither 
for  the  purpofe  of  depofiting  its  eggs  in  the  meat.  Butch- 
ers take  the  advantage  of  this  jealous  warfare.  They  en- 
courage  the  wafps,  and  make  centinels  of  them,  by  giving 
them  livers,  which  they  prefer  to  more  fibrous  flefh,  pro- 
bably becaufe  they  can  cut  livers  more  eafily  with  their 
teeth. 

The  libella,  dragon,  or  lady-fly,  is  well  known  by  the 
beauty  of  its  colours  and  the  fymmetry  of  its  form.  For 
thefe  external  qualities  it  has  received  the  appellation  of 
lady-fly.  Its  difpofitions  and  its  mode  of  life,  however, 
are  more  ferocious  and  warlike  than  thofe  of  the  Ama- 
zones.  Like  birds  of  prey,  they  hover  about  in  the  air, 
for  the  fole  purpofe  of  devouring  almoft  every  fpecies 
of  winged  infect.  They,  accordingly,  frequent  marfhy 
grounds,  pools  of  water,  and  the  margins  of  rivers,  where 
infects  mod  abound.  Their  appetite  is  fo  grofs  and  vora- 
cious, that  they  not  only  devour  frnall  flies,  but  even  the 
large  flefh-fly,  moths,  and  butterflies,  of  every  kind. 

It  has  been  often  faid,  that  no  animal  fpontaneoufly 
feeds  upon  its  own  fpecies.  This  remark  has  probably 
been  intended  as  an  apology  for,  or  at  lead  a  limitation 
to,  the  general  fyflem  of  carnage  eftablifhed  by  Nature. 
But,  the  obfervation,  whatever  might  have  been  its  in- 
tention, is  unhappily  a  refult  of  ignorance ;  for  fome 
quadrupeds,  all  fifties,  and  many  infects,  make  no  fuch 
difcrimination.  The  weaker  are  uniformly  preyed  upon 
by  the  ftronger.  Reaumur  put  twenty  of  thofe  caterpil- 
lars which  feed  upon  the  leaves  of  the  oak  into  a  vial. 
Though  he  regularly  fupplied  them  with  plenty  of  frefh 
oak  leaves,  he  obferved  that  the  number  of  dead  ones 
daily  increafed.  Upon  a  more  attentive  examination  into 
the  caufe  of  this  mortality,  he  found,  that  the  ftronger 
attacked  with  their  teeth,  killed,  fucked  out  the  vitals  of 
their  weaker  companions,  and  left  nothing  but  the  head, 
feet,  and  empty  fkins.  In  a  few  days,  one  only  of  the 
twenty  remained  in  life. 

Caterpillars  have  myriads  of  external  enemies,  as  birds 
of  almoft  every  kind,  many  of  the  fmaller  quadrupeds, 
their  own  fpecies,  and  numberlefs  infects.  But  this  vaft 

X  x  fource 


.546  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

fource  of  devaluation  is  ftill  augmented  by  what  may  be  de- 
nominated their  internal  enemies.  Many  flies  depofit  their 
eggs  in  the  bodies  of  caterpillars.  From  thefe  eggs  proceed 
fmall  maggots,  which  gradually  devour  the  vitals  of  the  a- 
nimal  in  which  they  refide.  When  about  to  be  transform- 
ed into  chryfalids,  they  pierce,  the  Ikin  of  the  caterpillar, 
fpin  their  pods,  and  remain  on  the  empty  fkin  till  they 
ailume  the  form  of  flies,  and  efcape  into  the  air  to  per- 
form the  fame  cruel  office  to  another  unfortunate  reptile. 
Every  perfon  mufl  recoiled  to  have  feen  the  colewort  or 
cabbage  caterpillar  (tuck  upon  old  walls,  or  the  windows 
of  country  cottages,  totally  covered  with  thefe  chryfalids, 
which  have  the  form  of  fmall  maggots,  and  are  of  a  fine 
yellow  colour.  One  of  the  moil  formidable  enemies  of 
the  caterpillar  is  a  black  worm,  with  fix  cruflaceous  legs. 
It  is  as  long,  and  thicker  than  an  ordinary  fized  cater- 
pillar. In  the  fore  part  of  the  head  it  has  two  curved 
pincers,  with  which  it  quickly  pierces  the  belly  of  a  ca- 
terpillar, and  never  quits  the  prey  till  it  is  entirely  de- 
voured. The  largeft  caterpillar  is  not  fufficient  to  nourifh 
this  worm  for  a  fmgle  day ;  for  it  daily  kills  and  eats  fe- 
veral  of  them.  Thefe  gluttonous  worms,  when  gorged 
with  food,  become  inactive,  and  almofl  motionlefs.  When 
in  this  fatiated  condition,  young  worms  of  the  fame  fpe- 
cies  attack  and  devour  them.  Of  all  trees,  the  oak, 
perhaps,  nourifhes  the  greatefl  number  of  different  cater- 
,  pillars,  as  well  as  of  different  infects.  Amongft  others, 
the  oak  is  inhabited  by  a  large  and  beautiful  beetle. 
This  beetle  frequents  the  oak,  probably  becaufe  that  tree 
is  inhabited  by  the  greatell  number  of  caterpillars.  It 
inarches  from  branch  to  branch,  and,  when  difpofed  for 
food,  attacks  and  devours  the  firfl  caterpillar  that  comes 
in  its  way. 

The  pucerons,  vine-fretters,  or  plant-lice,  are  very  in- 
jurious to  trees  and  vegetables  of  almofl  every  kind. 
Their  fpecies  are  fo  numerous,  and  all  of  them  are  en- 
dowed with  fuch  a  wonderful  fertility,  that  we  fhould 
expect  to  fee  the  leaves,  the  branches,  and  the  iiems  of 
every  plant  totally  covered  with  them.  But  this  aftonifh- 
ing  fecundity,  and  the  devaftation  thefe  fmall  infefts  would 

unavoidably 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          347 

unavoidably  produce  among  the  vegetable  tribes,  is  check- 
ed by  numberlefs  enemies.  Myriads  of  infects  of  different 
claffes,  of  different  genera,  and  of  different  fpecies,  feem 
to  be  produced  for  no  other  purpofe^but  to  devour  the 
pucerons.  Some  of  thefe  infects  are  fo  voracious,  that, 
notwithstanding  the  extreme  prolific  powers  of  the  puce- 
rons, we  have  reafon  to  be  furprifed  that  their  fpecies  are 
not  entirely  annihilated.  On  every  leaf  inhabited  by  the 
puceron  we  find  worms  of  different  kinds.  Thefe  worms 
feed  not  upon  the  leaves,  but  upon  the  pucerons,  whom 
they  devour  with  an  almoft  incredible  rapacity.  Some 
of  thefe  worms  are  transformed  into  flies  with  two  wings, 
others  into  flies  with  four  wings,  and  others  into  beetles. 
While  in  the  worm-ftate,  one  of  thefe  gluttonous  infers 
will  fuck  out  the  vitals  of  twenty  pucerons  in  a  quarter 
of  an  hour.  Reaumur  fupplied  a  fingle  worm  with  more 
than  a  hundred  pucerons,  every  one  of  which  it  devoured 
in  lefs  than  three  hours. 

Befide  the  general  fyftem  of  carnage  produced  by  the 
neceffity  of  one  animal's  feeding  upon  another,  there  are 
other  fources  of  deftruclion,  which  originate  from  very 
different  motives.  Man  is  not  the  only  animal  who  wages, 
war  with  his  own  fpecies.  War  among  mankind,  in  cer- 
tain accidental  fituations  of  fociety,  may  be  productive, 
to  particular  nations  or  communities,  of  beneficial  effects. 
But  every  advantage  derived  by  war  to  one  nation  is  ac- 
quired at  the  expence,  and  either  the  partial  or  the  total 
ruin,  of  another.  If  univerfal  peace  could  be  completely 
-eftablifhed,  and  if  the  earth  were  cultivated  to  the  higheft 
perfection,  it  is  not  probable  that  the  multiplication  of 
the  human  fpecies  would  ever  rile  to  fuch  a  degree  as  to 
exceed  the  quantity  of  provifioris  produced  by  agriculture, 
and  by  the  breeding  of  domeftic  animals,  neceffary  for 
their  exiftence  and  happinefs.  But,  as  long  as  men  are 
actuated  by  ambition,  by  refentment,  and  by  many 
other  hoftile  paffions,  war  and  animofity,  with  all  their 
train  of  bloodfhed  and  calamity,  will  forever  continue 
to  harrafs  and  perfecute  the  human  kind.  Let  us,  how- 
ever, be  humble.  We  cannot  unfold  the  myfteries  of 
Nature ;  but  we  may  admire  her  operations,  and  fubmit, 

with 


343  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

with  a  becoming  refignation,  to  her  irrefiflible  decrees. 
The  man,  if  fuch  a  man  there  be,  whofe  itrength  of  mind 
enables  him  to  obferve  ftedfaflly  this  conduct,  is  the 
only  real  philofopher. 

As  formerly  remarked,  man  is  not  the  only  animal  that 
makes  war  -with  his  own  fpecies.  Quadrupeds,  birds, 
fifties,  infects,  independently  of  their  appetite  for  food, 
occafionally  fight  and  kill  each  other.  On  this  fubject 
we  mail  confine  ourfelves  to  a  few  examples  derived  from 
the  infect  tribes. 

A  fociety  or  hive  of  bees  confifts  of  a  female,  of  males, 
and  of  drones,  or  neuters.  Thefe  three  kinds  continue, 
for  fome  time,  in  the  molt  perfect  harmony,  and  mutu- 
ally protect  and  affift  each  other.  The  neuters,  or  work- 
ing bees,  difcover  the  ftrongeft  attachment  and  affection, 
to  the  males,  even  when  in  their  worm  (late.  The  neu- 
ters are  armed  with  a  deadly  fting,  of  which  the  males 
are  deftitute.  Both  are  equally  produced  by  the  fame 
mother,  and  live  in  the  fame  family.  But,  notwithfland- 
ing  their  temporary  affection,  there  are  times  when  the 
neuters  cruelly  maiTacre  the  males.  Among  the  laws  of 
poliihed  republics,  we  find  fome  which  are  extremely 
ba.rbarous.  The  Lacedemonians  were  allowed  to  kill 
fuch  of  their  children  as  were  produced  in  a  defective  or 
maimed  ftate,  becaufe  they  would  become  a  burden  upon 
the  community.  The  laws  of  the  Chinefe  permit  actions 
equally  inhuman.  We  perhaps  know  not  all  the  reafons 
why  the  neuter  bees  treat  the  males  with  fo  much  cruelty. 
There  is  a  time,  however,  when  the  males  become  per* 
fectly  ufelefs  to  the  community ;  and  it  is  not  incurious 
to  remark,  that  the  general  maffacre  never  commences 
till  this  period  arrives.  Whenever  a  Itranger-bee  enters 
a  hive,  his  temerity  is  uniformly  punifhed  with  death. 
But  mortal  combats  are  not  unfrequent  between  bees  be- 
longing to  the  fame  hive.  Thefe  combats  are  molt  fre- 
quent in  clear  and  warm  weather.  Sometimes  two  com- 
batants come  out  of  the  hive  clofely  fattened  to  each 
other.  At  other  times  the  attack  is  made  in  the  air.  But, 
in  whatever  way  the  battle  begins,  both  combatants  uni^ 
formly  come  to  the  ground  before  it  is  terminated  by  the 

death 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.        349 

death  of  one  of  the  parties.  When  they  reach  the 
ground,  each  individual,  like  a  wrefller,  endeavours  to 
gain  the  moil  advantageous  pofition  for  flinging  his  ad- 
verfary  to  death.  Sometimes,  though  rarely,  the  fling 
is  left  in  the  wound.  If  this  were  generally  the  cafe, 
every  combat  would  prove  fatal  to  two  bees ;  for  the 
victor  could  not  long  furvive  the  lofs  of  his  fling.  Thefe 
battles  fometimes  continue  near  an  hour  before  one  of 
the  flies  is  left  expiring  on  the  ground. 

Befide  thefe  fmgle  combats,  general  actions  are  not  un- 
frequent,  efpecially  in  the  fwarming  feafon.  When  two 
fwarms,  or  colonies,  happen  to  contend  for  the  fame  ha- 
bitation, a  general  and  bloody  engagement  immediately 
enfues.  Thefe  engagements  often  continue  for  hours, 
and  never  terminate  without  great  havock  on  both  fides. 
The  fling  is  not  the  only  weapon  employed  in  war  by 
bees.  They  are  furnifried  with  two  flrong  fangs  or  teeth, 
with  which  they  cruelly  tear  each  other.  Even  in  gene- 
ral engagements,  all  the  combats  are  fmgle.  But,  when 
the  great  flaughter  of  the  males  is  committing,  three  or 
four  neuters  are  not  afhamed  to  attack  a  fmgle  fly. 

Every  wafp's  nefl,  about  the  beginning  of  October, 
exhibits  a  fingular  and  a  cruel  fcene.  At  this  feafon, 
the  wafps  ceafe  to  bring  nourifhment  to  their  young. 
From  affectionate  mothers  or  nurfes,  they  at  once  become 
barbarous  flepmothers.  They  are  worfe ;  for  they  drag 
the  young  worms  from  their  cells,  and  carry  them  out 
of  the  nefl.  Being  thus  expofed  to  the  weather,  and 
deprived  of  nourifhment,  every  one  of  them  unavoidably 
perifhes.  This  devaflation  is  not,  like  that  of  the  honey- 
bees, confined  to  the  male-worms.  Here  no  worm,  of 
whatever  denomination  or  fex,  efcapes  the  general  and 
undiflinguifhed  maflacre.  Befide  expofing  the  worms  to 
the  weather,  the  wafps  kill  them  with  their  fangs.  This 
fact  feems  to  be  a  violation  of  parental  affection,  one  of 
the  flrongefl  principles  in  animal  nature.  But  the  inten- 
tions of  Nature,  though  they  may  often  elude  our  re- 
fearches,  are  never  wrong.  What  appears  to  us  cruel 
and  unnatural  in  this  inftinctive  devaflation  committed 
annually  by  the  wafps,  is  perhaps  an  act  of  the  greatefl 

mercy 


35o  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

mercy  and  companion.  Wafps  are  not,  like  the  honey- 
bees, endowed  with  the  inftinct  of  laying  up  a  ftore  of 
provifions  for  winter  fubfiftence.  If  not  prematurely  de- 
ftroyed  by  their  parents,  the  young  muft  neceffarily  die 
a  more  cruel  and  lingering  death,  occafioned  by  hunger. 
Hence  this  feemingly-harfh  conduct  in  the  ceconomy  of* 
wafps,  inftead  of  affording  an  exception  to  the  univerfal 
benevolence  and  wifdom  of  Nature,  is,  in  reality,  a  mer- 
ciful inftitution.  Befides,  as  the  multiplication  of  wafps 
is  prodigious,  and  as  they  are  a  noxious  race  both  to 
man  and  other  animals,  and  efpecially  to  many  tribes  of 
infects,  if  their  increafe  were  not  checked  by  fuch  a 
dreadful  carnage,  their  depredations,  in  a  few  years, 
would  annihilate  other  fpecies,  break  the  chain  of  Na- 
ture, and  even  prove  deftructive  to  man  and  the  larger 
animals. 

The  fame  inftinctive  fiaughter,  and  probably  for  the 
fame  reafons,  is  made  by  the  hornets.  Towards  the  end 
of  October,  all  the  worms  and  nymphs  are  dragged  out 
of  the  neft  and  killed.  The  neuters  and  males  fall  daily 
victims  to  the  cold ;  fo  that,  at  the  end  of  winter,  a  few 
fertile  females  only  remain  to  continue  the  fpecies. 

According  to  the  adopted  plan,  we  mail  finifh  this  fub- 
ject  with  fome  obfervations  which  may  have  a  tendency 
to  reconcile  our  minds  to  a  fyftem  fo  deftructive  to  indi- 
viduals of  every  fpecies,  that  humanity,  when  not  en- 
lightened by  a  ray  of  philofophy,  is  apt  to  revolt,  and  to 
brand  Nature  with  cruelty  and  oppreflion.  Nature,  it 
muft  be  conferled,  feems  almoft  indifferent  to  individuals, 
who  periih  every  moment  in  millions,  without  any  .appa- 
rent compunction.  But,  with  regard  to  fpecies  of  every 
defcription,  her  uniform  and  uninterrupted  attention  to 
the  prefervation  and  continuation  of  the  great  fyftem  of 
animation  is  confpicuous,  and  merits  admiration.  Life, 
it  mould  appear,  cannot  be  fupported  without  the  inter- 
vention of  death.  Through  almoft  the  whole  of  animat- 
ed Nature,  as  we  have  feen,  nothing  but  rapine,  and  the 
deftruction  of  individuals,  prevail.  This  deftruction, 
however,  has  its  ufe.  Every  animal,  after  death,  admini- 
fters  life  and  happinefs  to  a  number  of  others.  In  many 

animals, 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  351 

animals,  the  powers  of  digeftion,  and  of  affimilation,  arc 
confined  to  animal  fubftances  alone.  If  deprived  of  ani- 
mal food,  fuch  fpecies,  it  is  evident,  could  not  exift.  The 
chief  force  of  this  observation,  it  is  admitted,  is  applica- 
ble folely  to  the  carnivorous  tribes,  ftrictly  fo  denominat- 
ed. But,  from  the  facts  formerly  enumerated,  and  from 
the  daily  experience  of  every  man,  it  is  apparent,  that, 
perhaps,  no  animal  does  or  can  exift  totally  independent 
of  food  that  is  or  has  been  animated.  Sheep,  oxen,  and 
all  herbivorous  animals,  though  not  from  choice,  and  even 
without  confcioufnefs,  daily  devour  thoufands  of  infects. 
This  may  be  one  reafon  why  cattle  of  all  kinds  fatten  fo 
remarkably  in  rich  paftures ;  for  infects  are  always  moil 
numerous  where  the  herbage  is  luxuriant.  Nature  is  fo 
profufe  in  her  animated  productions,  that  no  food  can 
be  eat,  and  no  fluid  can  be  drunk,  in  which  animal  fub- 
flances,  either  in  a  living  or  dead  ftate,  are  not  to  be 
found. 

To  this  reafoning  it  may  be  objected,  Why  has  Nature 
eftablifhed  a  fyftem  fo  cruel  ?  Why  did  ihe  render  it  ne- 
ceifary  that  one  animal  could  not  live  without  the  de- 
ftruction  of  another  ?  To  fuch  queftions  no  anfwer  can 
be  either  given  or  expe&ed.  No  being,  except  the  Su- 
preme, can  unfold  this  myftery.  Perhaps  it  even  exceeds 
the  limits  of  poflibility  to  eftablifh  fuch  an  extended  fyf- 
tem of  animation  upon  any  other  foundation.  From  the 
general  benevolence  of  the  great  Creator,  we  are  war- 
ranted to  conclude  that  this  is  really  the  cafe.  But  it  is 
fruitlefs  to  dwell  upon  fubjects  which  are  infcrutable,  and 
far  removed  beyond  the  powers  of  human  intellect.  We 
mall  therefore  defcend,  and  endeavour  to  point  out  fome 
advantages  which  refult  from  this  myflerious  inftitution 
of  Nature. 

On  this  branch  of  the  fubject,  the  reader  will  eafily 
perceive  that  much  order  or  connection  is  not  to  be  ex- 
pected. 

The  hoflilities  of  animals,  mankind  not  excepted,  give 
rife  to  mutual  improvement.  Animals  improve,  and  dif- 
cover  a  fuperiority  of  parts,  in  proportion  to  the  number 
of  enemies  they  have  to  attack  or  evade.  The  weak,  and 

confe- 


352  THE   PHILOSOPHY 

confequently  timid,  are  obliged  to  exert  their  utmoft 
powers  in  inventing  and  practifmg  every  poflible  mode  of 
efcape.  Pure  iriftincl:  powerfully  prompts  ;  but  much  is 
learned  by  experience  and  obfervation.  Rapacious  ani- 
mals, on  the  contrary,  by  frequent  difappointment,  are 
obliged  to  provide  againil  the  cunning  and  alertnefs  of 
their  prey.  Herbivorous  animals,  as  they  have  little  dif- 
ficulty in  procuring  food,  are  proportionally  ftupid ; 
but  they  would  be  ftill  more  ftupid,  if  they  had  no 
enemies  to  annoy  them.  Man,  if  his  attention  and  ta- 
lents were  not  excited  by  the  animofities  of  his  own  fpe- 
cies,  by  the  attacks  of  ferocious  animals,  and  even  by 
thole  of  the  infect  tribes,  would  be  an  indolent,  an  in- 
curious, a  dirty,  and  an  ignorant  animal.  Thofe  of  the 
human  race,  accordingly,  who  procure  their  food  with  lit- 
tle or  no  induftry,  as  we  learn  from  a  multitude  of  travel- 
lers and  voyagers,  are  perfectly  indolent  and  brutifhly  ftu- 
pid. Timid  animals  never  ufe  the  arts  of  defence,  or 
provide  againft  danger,  except  from  three  caufes,  pure 
inftinct,  which  is  implanted  in  their  natures,  imitation, 
and  experience.  By  experience,  timid  animals  are  taught 
the  arts  of  evafion.  Flight  is  inflinctive  ;  but  the  modi- 
fications of  it  are  acquired  by  imitation  and  experience. 

Hoftilities,  in  fome  inftances,  feem  to  arife,  not  from 
a  natural  antipathy  of  one  fpecies  to  another,  but  from  a 
fcarcity  of  food.  The  celebrated  Captain  Cooke  informs 
us,  that,  in  Staten-Ifland,  birds  of  prey  aflemble  promif- 
cuoufly  with  penguins  and  other  birds,  without  the  one 
offering  any  injury,  or  the  other  difcovering  the  fmalleft 
fymptom  of  terror.  In  that  ifland,  the  rapacious  birds, 
perhaps,  find  plenty  of  food  from  dead  feals,  fea-lions, 
and  Mies. 

A  profufion  of  animal  life  feems  to  be  the  general  in- 
tention of  Nature.  For  this  purpofe,  when  not  modified 
or  reftrained  by  the  induftry  and  intelligence  of  man,  me 
uniformly  covers  the  furface  of  the  earth  with  trees  and  ve- 
getables of  every  kind,  which  fupply  myriads  of  animated 
beings  with  food.  But  the  greateft  poflible  extenfion  aof 
life  would  ftill  be  wanting,  if  animals  did  not  prey  upon 
each  other.  If  all  animals  were  to  live  upon  vegetables 

alone, 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY,        353 

alone,  many  fpecies,  and  millions  of  individuals,  which 
now  enjoy  life  and  happinefs,  could  have  no  exiflence  ; 
for  the  productions  of  the  earth  would  not  be  fufficient 
to  fupport  them.  But,  by  making  animals  feed  upon 
each  other,  the  fyftem  of  animation  and  of  happinefs  is 
extended  to  the  greateft  poflible  degree.  In  this  view, 
Nature,  inftead  of  being  cruel  and  oppreffive,  is  highly 
generous  and  beneficent. 

To  diminifh  the  number  of  noxious  animals,  and  to 
augment  that  of  ufeful  vegetables,  has  been  the  uniform, 
fcope  of  human  induftry.  A  few  fpecies  of  animals  on- 
ly are  of  immediate  utility  to  man.  Thefe  he  either  cul- 
tivates with  care,  or  hunts  for  his  prey.  The  ox,  the 
fheep,  the  goat,  and  other  animals  which  are  under  his 
peculiar  protection,  he  daily  ufes  for  food.  This  is  not 
cruelty.  He  has  a  right  to  eat  them :  For,  like  Nature, 
though  he  occasionally  deflroys  domeftic  animals,  a  timid 
and  docile  race  of  beings,  by  his  culture  and  protection 
he  gives  life  and  happinefs  to  millions,  which,  without 
his  aid,  could  have  no  exiflence.  The  number  of  indi- 
viduals, among  animals  of  this  defcription,  if  they  were 
not  cherimed  and  defended  by  man,  would  be  extremely 
limited  ;  for,  by  the  mildnefs  of  their  difpofitions,  the 
comparative  weaknefs  of  their  arms,  and  the  univerfal 
and  ftrong  appetite  for  them  by  rapacious  quadrupeds 
and  birds  of  prey,  though  the  fpecies  might,  perhaps,  be 
continued,  the  number  of  individuals  would,  of  necef- 
fity,  be  very  fmall. 

There  is  a  wonderful  balance  in  the  fyftem  of  animal 
deftruction.  If  the  general  profufion  of  the  animated 
productions  of  Nature  had  no  other  check  than  the  va- 
rious periods  to  which  their  lives,  when  not  extinguimed 
by  hoftilities  of  one  kind  or  another,  are  limited,  the 
whole  would  foon  be  annihilated  by  an  univerfal  famine, 
and  the  earth,  inftead  of  every  where  teeming  with  ani- 
mals, would,  unlefs  repeopled  by  a  new  creation,  ex- 
hibit nothing  but  a  mute,  a  lifelefs,  and  an  inactive  fcene. 
If  even  a  fingle  fpecies  were  permitted  to  multiply  with- 
out difturbance,  the  food  of  other  fpecies  would  be  ex- 
haufted,  and,  of  courfe,  a  period  would  be  put  to  their- 

Y  y  fxiftence. 


354  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

exigence.     The    herbivorous  and  frugivorous   races,  if 
not  retrained  by  the  carnivorous,  would  foon  increafe 
to  a  hurtful  degree.     Carnivorous  animals  are  the  bar- 
riers fixed  by  Nature  to  noxious  inundations  of  other 
kinds.     The  carnivorous  tribes  may  be  compared  to  the 
hoe  and  the  pruning  hook,  which,  by  diminiming  the 
number  of  plants  when  too  clofe,  or  lopping  off  their  lux- 
uriancies,  make  the  others  grow  to  greater  perfection. 
To  thofe  fwarms  of  infects   which  cover  the  furface  of 
the  earth,  are   oppofed  an  army  of  birds,  an  active,  a 
vigilant,  and  a  voracious  race.     Hares,    rabbits,    mice, 
rats,  are  expofed  to  the  depredations  of  carnivorous  qua- 
drupeds and  birds.     The  larger  cattle,  as  the  ox,  the  deer, 
the   fheep,   &c.  are  not  exempted  from  enemies :  And 
man,  by  the  fuperiority  of  his  mental  powers,    checks 
the  multiplication  of  the  carnivorous  tribes,  and  main- 
tains the  balance  and  empire  of  the  animal  fyftem.    Thofe 
fpecies  which  are  endowed  with  uncommon  fertility  have 
the  greater!  number  of  enemies.    The  caterpillar,  the  puce^ 
ron,  and  infects  in  general,  one  of  the  mod  prolific  tribes  of 
animals,  are  attacked  and  devoured  by  numerous  hoflile 
bands.    No  fpecies,  however,  is  ever  exhaufted.     The  ba- 
lance between  gain  and  lofs  is  perpetually  preferved.    The 
earth,  the  feas,  the  atmofphere,  may  be  confidered  as  an 
immenfe  and  variegated  paflure.     In  this  view,  it  is  mofl 
judicioufly  cultivated  and  flocked  by  the  numerous  ani- 
mated beings  which  it  is   deftined  to  fupport.     Every 
animal  and  every  vegetable  furnifh  fubfiftence  to  particular 
fpecies.    Thus,  nothing  of  value  is  loft  ;  and  every  fpecies 
is  abundantly  fupplied  with  food. 

That  the  general  balance  of  animation  is  confiantly 
preferved,  we  learn  from  daily  experience.  The  reader* 
however,  I  prefume,.  will  not  be  difpleafed  to  have  fome 
examples  of  the  modes  employed  by  Nature  to  accomplifh 
this  effect  fuggefted  to  him. 

After  an  inundation  of  the  Nile,  the  lower  parts  of 
Egypt  are  greatly  infefted  with  ferpents,  frogs,  mice, 
and  other  vermin.  At  that  period,  the  ftorks  refort 
thither  in  immenfe  multitudes,  and  devour  the  fer- 
pents, frogs,  and  mice,  which,  without  this  dreadful  car- 
nage, 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         355 

nage,  would  be  highly  noxious  to  the  inhabitants.  Be- 
lon,  a  moil  ingenious  and  faithful  French  Naturalift,  re- 
marks, that,  in  many  places,  the  land  could  not  be  inha- 
bited, if  the  ftorks  did  not  deftroy  the  amazing  numbers 
of  mice  which  frequently  appear  in  Paleftine,  and  other 
parts  of  the  Eafl  bordering  upon  Egypt.  The  Egyptian 
vulture,  fays  Haffelquift,  is  of  fmgular  benefit  to  that 
country.  It  eats  up  all  the  dung  and  offals  in  the  towns, 
and  the  carcafes  of  camels,  horfes,  affes,  &c.  in  the  fields, 
which,  if  not  quickly  devoured,  would,  in  that  warm 
climate,  by  their  putrefcency,  be  productive  of  difeafe 
arid  death  to  the  inhabitants.  Putrid  carcafes,  in  all  coun- 
tries, are  both  offenfive  to  the  noftrils  and  hurtful  to 
health.  But  Nature,  by  various  inftruments,  foon  re- 
moves the  evil.  An  animal  no  foorier  dies,  than,  in  a 
very  fhort  time,  he  is  confumed  by  bears,  wolves,  foxes, 
dogs,  and  ravens.  In  fituations  where  thefe  animals  dare 
not  approach,  as  in  the  vicinity  of  towns  and  villages,  a 
dead  horfe,  in  a  few  days,  is  devoured  by  myriads  of 
maggots.  In  the  uncultivated  parts  of  America,  ferpents 
and  makes  of  different  kinds  abound.  After  it  was  dif- 
covered  that  fwine  greedily  devoured  ferpents,  hogs  were 
uniformly  kept  by  all  new  fettlers.  Caterpillars  are  de- 
ftrudive  to  the  leaves  and  fruits  of  plants.  Their  num- 
bers and  varieties  are  immenfe.  But  their  devastations 
are  checked  by  many  enemies.  Without  a  profufion  of 
caterpillars,  mod  of  the  fmaller  birds,  efpecially  when 
young,  could  not  be  fupported.  By  devouring  the  ca- 
terpillars, thefe  birds  preferve  the  fruits  of  the  earth  from 
total  deftruction.  Mr.  Bradley,  in  his  General  Treatife 
of  Hufbandry  and  Gardening,  has  publifhed  a  letter,  in 
which  the  author  oppofes  the  common  opinion,  that  birds, 
and  particularly  fparrows,  do  much  mifchief  in  our  gar- 
dens and  fields.  The  fact  is  admitted.  But  the  great  uti- 
lity of  thefe  birds  is  overlooked :  For  this  author  proves, 
that  they  are  much  more  ufeful  than  noxious.  He  mows, 
that  a  pair  of  fparrows,  during  the  time  they  have  their 
young  to  feed,  deftroy,  every  week,  3360  caterpillars. 
This  calculation  he  founded  upon  actual  obfervation.  He 
difcovered  that  the  two  parents  carried  to  the  neft  40  ca- 
terpillars 


356  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

terpillars  in  an  hour.  He  then  fuppofes,  which  is  a  mo- 
derate fuppofition,  that  the  fparrows  enter  the  neft  only  1 2 
hours  each  day,  which  is  a  daily  confumption  of  480  ca- 
terpillars. This  fum,  multiplied  by  7,  or  the  days  in  a 
week,  gives  3360  caterpillars  extirpated  weekly  from  a  gar- 
den. The  utility  of  thefe  birds  is  not  limited  to  this  cir- 
cumftance  alone  ;  for  they  likewife  feed  their  young  with 
butterflies,  and  other  winged  infecls,  each  of  which,  if  not 
deftroyed  in  this  manner,  would  be  the  parent  of  feveral 
hundreds  of  caterpillars.  Thofe  butterflies  and  caterpillars 
which  are  covered  with  hair  are  rejected  by  fome  birds,  who 
prefer  flies  of  a  fmoother  and  fmaller  kind.  But  thefe  hairy 
fpecies,  it  mould  be  confidered,  are  the  food  of  the  worms 
which  are  transformed  into  thofe  fmaller  flies  that  afford 
nourifhment  to  the  birds  which  reject  the  hairy  caterpillars 
and  butterflies. 

Shell-fifties  are  extremely  prolific,  and  fo  ftrongly  for- 
tified by  Nature,  that  their  increafe,  one  mould  imagine, 
would  foon  augment  to  a  degree  that  might  be  hurtful  to 
other  fpecies.  Their  noxious  multiplication,  however, 
is  checked  by  numberlefs  enemies.  But  their  moft  def- 
trudive  enemy  is  the  trochus,  which  is  a  kind  of  fea- 
fnail.  This  animal  is  furnimed  with  a  flrong,  mufcular, 
hollow  trunk,  bordered  at  the  extremity  with  a  cartilage 
toothed  like  a  faw.  Againft  this  inftrument,  which  ads 
like  an  augre,  no  fhell,  however  hard  or  thick,  is  a  fuf- 
ficient  defence.  Thefe  animals,  called  trochl^  fix  them- 
felves  upon  an  oyfter  or  a  mufcle,  bore  through  the  fhell 
with  their  trunk,  and  devour  their  prey  at  their  leifure. 
The  animal  attacked,  if  a  bivalve,  may  open  or  fhut  its 
fhell ;  but  no  efforts  of  this  kind  can  be  of  any  avail ; 
for  the  trochus  remains  immoveably  fixed  till  it  has  com- 
pletely fucked  out  the  vitals  of  its  prey.  In  this  cruel 
occupation  the  trochus  often  continues  for  days,  and  even 
weeks,  before  the  life  of  the  animal  attacked  is  fully  ex- 
tinguifhed.  The  operation  of  the  trochus  may  be  feen 
in  the  mells  of  many  oyfters,  mufcles,  and  other  fhell- 
fifhes ;  for  their  fhells  are  often  pierced  with  a  number 
qf  circular  holes. 

The 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.        357 

The  amazing  ftrength  of  the  whale,  one  fhould  ima- 
gine, would  fecure  it  from  the  infults  of  every  other  ani- 
mal. But,  befide  the  annual  depredations  made  by  man 
upon  the  cetaceous  tribes,  they  are  often  attacked  and 
killed  by  the  fword-fifh.  The  fnout  of  this  comparatively- 
fmall  animal  is  armed  with  a  long,  hard,  projection  of 
bone,  each  edge  of  which  is  furnifhed  with  a  number  of 
ftrong,  fiat,  and  Iharp  points,  or  teeth,  fome  of  which, 
efpecially  near  the  fnout,  are  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length. 
With  this  inftrument  the  fword-fifh  boldly  attacks  the 
whale.  I  have  often  had  the  pleafure,  fays  Pere  Labat  *, 
of  feeing  their  combats.  The  whale  has  no  other  defence 
but  its  tail,  with  which  it  endeavours  to  ftrike  its  antago- 
nift.  But,  as  the  fword-fifh  is  more  aclive  and  nimble 
than  the  whale,  he  eafily  parries  the  blow  by  fpringing 
into  the  air,  and  renewing  the  attack  with  his  faw-like 
inftrument.  Whenever  he  fucceeds,  the  fea  is  dyed  red 
with  the  blood  iffuing  from  the  wound.  The  fury  of  the 
whale  appears  from  the  vehemence  with  which  it  lafhes 
the  waters,  each  ftroke  refounding  like  the  report  of  a 
cannon. 

Many  fmall  birds,  and  particularly  the  wren  and  the 
tit-moufe,  may  be  feen,  during  the  winter-feafon,  pecking 
at  the  buds  and  branches  of  trees  in  our  gardens.  To 
thefe  little  animals  Nature  has  entrufted  the  charge  of  pre- 
venting the  noxious  multiplication  of  thofe  worms  which 
feed  upon  fruits.  Nature,  as  far  as  we  are  able  to  trace 
her  operations,  does  nothing  in  vain,  or  without  fomc 
valuable  intention.  No  animals  exift  which  are  not  ufe- 
ful,  either  by  affording  nourifhment  to,  or  preventing  the 
hurtful  increafe  of,  other  fpecies. 

Upon  the  whole,  every  animated  being  that  inhabits 
this  globe  feems  to  be  deftined  by  Nature,  not  for  its  own 
individual  exiftence  and  happinefs  alone,  but  likewife  for 
the  exiftence  and  happinefs  of  other  animated  beings.  A 
circle  of  animation  and  of  definition  goes  perpetually 
round.  This  is  the  ceconomy  of  Nature.  Different  fpe- 
cies of  animals  live  by  the  mutual  definition  of  each 

other. 

f  Nq^iv.  Voyage,  torn,  6.  pag.  150,    S. 


358  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

other.  Even  among  individual  men,  the  ftrong  too  often 
opprefs  the  weak ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  wife  m- 
ftruft  the  ignorant.  Thefe  are  the  bonds  of  fociety,  and 
the  fources  of  improvement. 


CHAPTER      XV, 

Of  the  Artifices  of  Animals. 


IT  will  be  recollected,  that  many  inftances  of  the  dsx- 
terity  and  artifices  employed  by  different  animals  in 
various  parts  of  their  manners  and  oeconomy,  have  been 
occasionally  mentioned  in  feveral  of  the  foregoing  chap- 
ters. This  circumftance,  to  avoid  repetitions,  will  necef- 
farily  render  the  prefent  chapter  proportionally  fliort. 

The  artifices  praclifed  by  animals  proceed  from  feve- 
ral motives,  many  of  which  are  purely  inftinftive,  and 
others  are  acquired  by  experience  and  imitation.  Their 
arts,  in  general,  are  called  forth  and  exerted  by  three 
great  and  important  caufes,  the  love  of  life,  the  defire 
of  multiplying  and  continuing  the  Ipecies,  and  that  ftrong 
attachment  which  every  animal  has  to  its  offspring.  Thefe 
are  the  fources  from  which  all  the  movements,  all  the 
dexterity,  and  all  the  fagacity  of  animals  originate.  The 
principle  of  felf-prefervation  is  inftindive,  and  ftrongly 
imprefied  upon  the  minds  of  all  animated  beings.  It 
gives  rife  to  innumerable  arts  of  attack  and  defence,  and 
not  unfrequently  to  furprifing  exertions  of  fagacity  and 
genius.  The  fame  remark  is  applicable  to  the  defire  of 
multiplication,  and  to  parental  affection.  Upon  this  fub- 
jecl:  we  fhall,  as  ufual,  give  fome  examples  of  animal  ar- 
tifice, which  may  both  amufe  and  inform  fome  readers. 

When  a  bear,  or  other  rapacious  animal,  attacks  cattle, 
they  inftantly  join  and  form  a  phalanx  for  mutual  defence. 
In  the  fame  circumftances,  horfes  rank  up  in  lines,  and 

beat 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         359 

beat  ofF  the  enemy  with  their  heels.  Pontoppidan  tells  us, 
that  the  fmall  Norwegian  horfes,  when  attacked  by  bears, 
iriftead  of  (Inking  with  their  hind-legs,  rear,  and,  by 
quick  and  repeated  ftrokes  with  their  fore-feet,  either  kill 
the  enemy,  or  oblige  him  to  retire.  This  curious,  and 
generally  fuccefsful  defence,  is  frequently  performed  in 
the  woods,  while  a  traveller  is  fitting  on  the  horfe's  back. 
It  has  often  been  remarked,  that  troops  of  wild  horfes, 
when  fleeping  either  in  plains  or  in  the  foreft,  have  always 
one  of  their  number  awake,  who  acts  as  a  centinel,  and 
gives  notice  of  any  approaching  danger. 

Margraaf  informs  us,  that  the  monkeys  in  Brazil,  while 
they  are  fleeping  on  the  trees,  have  uniformly  a  centinel 
to  warn  them  of  the  approach  of  the  tiger  or  other  rapa- 
cious animals  \  and  that,  if  ever  this  centinel  is  found 
fleeping,  his  companions  inftantly  tear  him  in  pieces  for 
his  neglect  of  duty.  For  the  fame  purpofe,  when  a  troop 
of  monkeys  are  committing  depredations  on  the  fruits  of 
a  garden,  a  centinel  is  placed  on  an  eminence,  who,  when 
any  perfon  appears,  makes  a  certain  chattering  noife, 
which  the  reft  underfland  to  be  a  fignal  for  retreat,  and 
immediately  fly  off  and  make  their  efcape. 

The  deer-kind  are  remarkable  for  the  arts  they  employ 
in  order  to  deceive  the  dogs.  With  this  view  the  flag 
often  returns  twice  or  thrice  upon  his  former  fteps.  He 
endeavours  to  raife  hinds  or  younger  {lags  to  follow  him, 
and  to  draw  off  the  dogs  from  the  immediate  object  of 
their  purfuit.  If  he  fucceeds  in  this  attempt,  he  then  flies 
off  with  redoubled  fpeed,  or  fprings  off  at  a  fide,  and  lies 
down  on  his  belly  to  conceal  himfelf.  When  in  this  fitu* 
ation,  if  by  any  means  his  foot  is  recovered  by  the  dogs, 
they  purfue  him  with  more  advantage,  becaufe  he  is  now 
confiderably  fatigued.  Their  ardour  increafes  in  propor- 
tion to  his  feeblenefs ;  and  the  fcent  becomes  ftronger  as 
he  grows  warm.  From  thefe  circumftances  the  dogs  aug- 
ment their  cries  and  their  fpeed  j  and,  though  the  flag 
employs  more  arts  of  efcape  than  formerly,  as  his  fwift- 
nefs  is  diminifhed,  his  doublings  and  artifices  become 
gradually  lefs  effectual.  No  other  refource  is  now  left 
feim  but  to  fly  from  the  earth  which  he  treads,  and  go  in- 
to 


3-6o  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

to  the  waters,  in  order  to  cut  off  the  fcent  from  the  dogs, 
when  the  huntfmen  again  endeavour  to  put  them  on  the 
track  of  his  foot.  After  taking  to  the  water,  the  ftag  is 
fo  much  exhaufted  that  he  is  incapable  of  running  much 
farther,  and  is  foon  at  bay^  or,  in  other  words,  turns  and 
defends  himfelf  againfl  the  hounds.  In  this  fituation  he 
often  wounds  the  dogs,  and  even  the  huntfmen,  by  blows 
with  his  horns,  till  one  of  them  cuts  his  hams  to  make  him 
fall,  and  then  puts  a  period  to  his  life.  The  fallow-deer 
is  more  delicate,  lefs  favage,  and  approaches  nearer  to 
the  domeflic  flate  than  the  flag.  The  males,  during  the 
rutting  feafon,  make  a  bellowing  noife,  but  with  a  low  and 
interrupted  voice.  They  are  not  fo  furious  as  the  ftag. 
They  never  depart  from  their  own  country  in  queft  of  fe- 
males ;  but  they  bravely  fight  for  the  pofleflion  of  their 
miilrefTes.  They  affociate  in  herds,  which  generally  keep 
together.  When  great  numbers  are  affembled  in  one 
park,  they  commonly  form  themfelves  into  two  diftin£b 
troops,  which  foon  become  hoflile,  becaufe  they  are  both 
ambitious  of  poffefling  the  fame  part  of  the  inclofure. 
Each  of  thefe  troops  has  its  own  chief  or  leader,  who 
always  marches  foremoft,  and  he  is  uniformly  the  oldeft 
and  ftrongeft  of  the  flock.  The  others  follow  him  ;  and 
the  whole  draw  up  in  order  of  battle,  to  force  the  other 
troop,  who  obferve  the  fame  conduct,  from  the  befl  paf- 
ture.  The  regularity  with  which  thefe  combats  are  con- 
ducted is  fmgular.  They  make  regular  attacks,  fight  with 
courage,  and  never  think  themfelves  vanquifhed  by  one 
check  ;  for  the  battle  is  daily  renewed  till  the  weaker 
are  completely  defeated,  and  obliged  to  remain  in  the 
word  pafture.  They  love  elevated  and  hilly  countries. 
When  hunted,  they  run  not  ftraight  out,  like  the  ftag, 
but  double,  and  endeavour  to  conceal  themfelves  from  the 
dogs  by  various  artifices,  and  by  fubftituting  other  ani- 
mals in  their  place.  When  fatigued  and  heated,  how- 
ever, they  take  the  water  ;  but  never  attempt  to  crofs  fuch 
large  rivers  as  the  ftag.  Thus,  between  the  chace  of  the 
fallow-deer  and  of  the  ftag,  there  is  no  material  diffe- 
rence. Their  fagacity  and  inftincts,  their  fhifts  and 
doublings,  are  the  fame,  only  they  are  more  frequently 

pracWed 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.        361 

practifed  by  the  fallow-deer.  As  he  runs  not  fo  far  be- 
fore the  dogs,  and  is  lefs  enterprifmg,  he  has  oftener  oc- 
cafion  to  change,  to  fubftitute  another  in  his  place,  to 
double,  return  upon  his  former  tracks,  &c.  which  ren- 
ders the  hunting  of  the  fallow-deer  more  fubjecl:  to  incon- 
veniencies  than  that  of  the  flag. 

The  roe-deer  is  inferior  to  the  flag  and  fallow-deer 
both  in  ftrength  and  flature  ;  but  he  is  endowed  with 
more  gracefulnefs,  courage,  and  vivacity.  His  eyes  are 
more  brilliant  and  animated.  His  limbs  are  more  nim- 
ble ;  his  movements  are  quicker,  and  he  bounds  with 
equal  vigour  and  agility.  He  is  likewife  more  crafty, 
conceals  himfelf  with  greater  addrefs,  and  derives  fupe- 
rior  reiburces  from  his  inflin&s.  Though  he  leaves  be- 
hind him  a  ftronger  fcent  than  the  flag,  which  increafes  the 
ardour  of  the  dogs,  he  knows  how  to  evade  their  pur- 
fuit,  by  the  rapidity  with  which  he  commences  his  flight, 
and  by  his  numerous  doublings.  He  delays  not  his  arts 
of  defence  till  his  flrength  begins  to  fail  him ;  for  he  no 
fooner  perceives  that  the  firft  efforts  of  a  rapid  flight  have 
been  unfuccefsful,  than  he  repeatedly  returns  upon  his 
former  fleps ;  and,  after  confounding,  by  thefe  oppofite 
motions,  the  direction  he  has  taken,  after  intermixing 
the  prefent  with  the  paft  emanations  of  his  body,  he,  by 
a  great  bound,  rifes  from  the  earth,  and,  retiring  to  a 
fide,  lies  down  flat  on  his  belly.  In  this  immoveable  fitua- 
tion,  he  often  allows  the  whole  pack  of  his  deceived  ene- 
mies to  pafs  very  near  him.  The  roe-deer  differs  from 
the  ftag  in  difpofition,  manners,  and  in  almoft  every  na- 
tural habit.  Inftead  of  afTociating  in  herds,  they  live  in 
feparate  families.  The  two  parents  and  the  young  go  to- 
gether, and  never  mingle  with  ftrangers.  They  are  con- 
flant  in  their  amours,  and  never  unfaithful  like  the  ftag. 
The  females  commonly  produce  two  fawns,  the  one  a 
male  and  the  other  a  female.  Thefe  young  animals,  who 
are  brought  up  and  nourifhed  together,  acquire  a  mutual 
affection  fo  ftrong,  that  they  never -depart  from  each  other. 
This  attachment  is  fomething  more  than  love ;  for,  though 
always  in  company,  they  feel  the  rut  but  once  a  year,  and 
it  continues  only  fifteen  days.  At  this  period  the  father 

Z  z  drives 


362  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

drives  off  the  fawns,  as  if  he  intended  that  they  fnould 
yield  their  place  to  thofe  which  are  to  fucceed,  in  order 
to  form  new  families  for  themfelves.  After  the  rutting 
feafon,  however,  is  paft,  the  fawns  return  to  their  mo- 
ther, and  continue  with  her  fome  time  longer  ;  after 
which  they  feparate  forever,  and  remove  to  a  diftance 
from  the  place  of  their  nativity.  When  about  to  bring 
forth,  the  female  feparates  from  the  male  ;  and,  to  avoid 
the  wolf,  her  moft  dangerous  enemy,  conceals  herfelf  in 
the  deeped  receifes  of  the  foreft.  In  a  week  or  two  the 
fawns  are  able  to  follow  her.  When  threatened  with  dan- 
ger, me  hides  them  in  a  clofe  thicket ;  and,  fo  ftrong  is 
her  parental  affeclion,  that,  in  order  to  preferve  her  off- 
fpring  from  deftru&ion,  me  prefents  herfelf  to  be  chaced. 
Hares  poilefs  not,  like  rabbits,  the  art  of  digging  re- 
treats in  the  earth.  But  they  neither  want  inftiricl:  fuffi- 
cient  for  their  own  prefervation,  nor  fagacity  for  efcap- 
ing  their  enemies.  They  form  feats  or  nefts  on  the  fur- 
face  of  the  ground,  where  they  watch,  with  the  moil  vi- 
gilant attention,  the  approach  of  any  danger.  In  order 
to  deceive,  they  conceal  themfelves  between  clods  of  the 
fame  colour  with  that  of  their  own  hair.  When  purfu- 
ed,  they  firft  run  with  rapidity,  and  then  double,  or  re- 
turn upon  their  former  fteps.  From  the  place  of  ftart- 
ing,  the  females  run  not  fo  far  as  the  males ;  but  they 
double  more  frequently.  Hares  hunted  in  the  place  where 
they  were  brought  forth,  feldom  remove  to  a  great  dif- 
tance from  it,  but  return  to  their  form  ;  and,  when  chaced 
two  days  fucceffivcly,  on  the  fecond  day  they  perform  the 
fame  doublings  they  had  praclifed  the  day  before.  When 
hares  rim  ftraight  out  to  a  great  diftance,  it  is  a  proof 
that  they  are  ftrangers,  Male  hares,  efpecially  during  the 
moft  remarkable  period  of  rutting,  which  is  in  the  months 
of  January,  February,  and  March,  fometimes  perform 
— ies  of  feveral  miles  in  queft  of  mates;  but,  as  foon 
*-~  they  are  ftarted  by  dogs,  they  fly  back  to  the  place  of 
their  nativity.  c  I  have  feen  a  hare/  Fouilloux  remarks, 

*  fo  fagacious,  that,  after  hearing  the  hunter's  horn,  he 

*  ftarted  from  his  form,  and,  though  at  the  diftance  of  a, 

*  quarter  of  a  league,  went  to  fwim  in  a  pool,  and   lay 

c  down 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          363 

c  down  on  the  rufhes  in  the  middle  of  it,  without  being 
c  chaced  by  the  dogs.     I  have  feen  a  hare,  after  running 

*  two  hours  before  the  dogs,  pufh  another  from  his  feat, 
c  and  take  pofleffion  of  it.     I  have  feen  others  fwim  over 
'  two  or  three  ponds,  the  narrowed  of  which  was  eighty 
6  paces  broad.    I  have  feen  others,  after  a  two  hours  chace, 
'  run  into  a  flieep-fold  and  lie  down  among  them.    I  have 
c  feen  others,  when  hard  pufhed,  run  -in  among  a  flock  of 
6  fheep,  and  would  not  leave  them.     I  have  feen  others, 
c  after  hearing  the  noife  of  the  hounds,  conceal  themfelves 

*  in  the  earth.     I  have  feen  others  run  up  one  fide  of  a 
6  hedge  and  return  by  the  other,  when  there  was  nothing 
c  elfe  between  them  and  the  dogs.     I  have  feen  others, 
c  after  running  half  an  hour,  mount  an  old  wall,  fix  feet 

*  high,  and  clap  down  in  a  hole  covered  with  ivy.     Laftly, 
'  I  have  feen  others  fwim  over  a  river,  of  about  eighty  pa- 
c  ces  broad,  oftener  than  twice,  in   the  length  of  two 

*  hundred  paces/ 

The  fox  has,  in  all  ages  and  nations,  been  celebrated 
for  craftinefs  and  addrefs.  Acute  and  circumfpeft,  faga- 
cious  and  prudent,  he  diverfifies  his  conduct,,  and  always 
referves  fome  art  for  unforefeen  accidents.  Though  nim- 
bler than  the  wolf,  he  trufts  not  entirely  to  the  fwiftnefs 
of  his  courfe.  He  knows  how  to  enfure  fafety,  by  pro- 
viding himfelf  with  an  afylum,  to  which  he  retires  when 
danger  appears.  He  is  not  a  vagabond,  but  lives  in  a  fet- 
tled habitation  and  in  a  domeftic  (late.  The  choice  of 
fituation,  the  art  of  making  and  rendering  a  houfe  com- 
modious, and  of  concealing  the  avenues  which  lead  to  it, 
imply  a  fuperior  degree  of  fentiment  and  reflection.  The 
fox  pofTefles  thefe  qualities,  and  employs  them  with  dex- 
terity and  advantage.  He  takes  up  his  abode  on  the  bor- 
der of  a  wood,  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  cottages. 
Here  he  liflens  to  the  crowing  of  the  cocks  and  the  noife 
of  the  poultry.  He  fcents  them  at  a  diflance.  He  choofes 
his  time  with  great  judgment  and  difcretion.  He  conceals 
both  his  route  and  his  defign.  He  moves  forward  with 
caution,  fometimes  even  trailing  his  body,  and  feldom 
makes  a  fruitlefs  expedition.  When  he  leaps  the  wall,  or 
gets  in  underneath  it,  he  ravages  the  court-yard,  puts  all 

the 


364  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

the  fowls  to  death,  and  then  retires  quietly  with  his  prey, 
which  he  either  conceals  under  the  herbage,  or  carries  off 
to  his  kennel.  .In  a  fhort  time  he  returns  for  another, 
which  he  carries  off  and  hides  in  the  fame  manner,  but 
in  a  different  place.  In  this  manner  he  proceeds,  till  the 
light  of  the  fun,  or  fome  movements  perceived  in  the 
boufe^  admonifh  him  that  it  is  time  to  retire  to  his  den. 
He  does  much  mifchief  to  the  bird-catchers.  Early  in 
the  morning  he  vilits  their  nets  and  their  bird-lime,  and 
carries  off  fucceffively  all  the  birds  that  happen  to  be  en- 
tangled. The  young  hares  he  hunts  in  the  plains,  feizes 
old  ones  in  their  feats,,  digs  out  the  rabbits  in  the  warrens, 
finds  out  the  nefts  of  partridges,  quails,  &c.  feizes  the 
mothers  on  the  eggs,  and  deflroys  a  prodigious  number 
of  game.  Dogs  of  all  kinds  fpontaneoufly  hunt  the  fox. 
Though  his  odour  be  ftrong,  they  often  prefer  him  to 
the  flag  or  the  hare.  When,  purfued  he  runs  to  his  hole  ; 
and  it  is  not  uncommon  to  fend  in  terriers  to  detain  him 
till  the  hunters  remove  the  earth  above,  and  either  kill 
or  feize  him  alive.  The  mod  certain  method,  however, 
of  deftroying  a  fox  is  to  begin  with  fhutting  up  the  hole, 
to  flation  a  man  with  a  gun  near  the  entrance,  and  then 
to  fearch  about  with  the  dogs.  When  they  fall  in  with 
him  he  immediately  makes  for  his  hole.  But,  when  he 
eomes  up  to  it,  he  is  met  with  a  difcharge  from  the  gun. 
If  the  (hot  miifes  him,  he  flies  off  full  fpeed,  takes  a  wide 
circuit,  and  returns  again  to  the  hole,  where  he  is  fired 
upon  a  fecond  time  ;  but,  when  he  discovers  that  the  en- 
trance is  fhut,  he  darts  away  ftraight  forward,  with  the 
intention  of  never  revifiting  his  former  habitation.  He 
is  next  purfued  by  the  hounds,  whom  he  feldom  fails  to 
fatigue ;  becaufe,  with  much  cunning,  he  paffes  through 
the  thickefl  part  of  the  forefl,  or  places  of  the  moft  dif- 
ficult accefs,  where  the  dogs  are  hardly  able  to  follow 
him ;  and,  when  he  takes  to  the  plains,  Ire  runs  ftraight 
out,  without  either  flopping  or  doubling.  But  the  moil 
effectual  way  of  deftroying  foxes  is  to  lay  mares  baited 
with  live  pigeons,  fowls,  &c.  The  fox  is  an  exceedingly 
voracious  animal.  Befide  all  kinds  of  fleih  and  fifhes,  he 
^devours,,  with  equal  avidity,  eggs,  milk,  cheefe,  fruits,  and 

particu- 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          365 

particularly  grapes.  He  is  fo  extremely  fond  of  honey, 
that  he  attacks  the  nefts  of  wild  bees.  They  at  firft  put 
him  to  flight  by  numberlefs  (lings  ;  but  he  retires  for  the 
fole  purpoie  of  rolling  himfelf  on  the  ground,  and  of 
crufhing  the  bees.  He  returns  to  the  charge  fo  often, 
that  he  obliges  them  to  abandon  the  hive,  which  he  foon 
uncovers,  and  devours  both  the  honey  and  the  wax. 
Some  time  before  the  female  brings  forth,  (he  retires>  and 
feldom  leaves  her  hole,  where  fhe  prepares  a  bed  for  her 
young.  When  fhe  perceives  that  her  retreat  is  difcovered, 
and  that  her  young  have  been  diflurbed,  fhe  carries  them 
off,  one  by  one,  into  a  new  habitation.  The  fox  deeps 
in  a  round  form,  like  the  dog ;  but,  when  he  only  re- 
pofes  himfelf,  he  lies  on  his  belly  with  his  hind-legs  ex- 
tended. It  is  in  this  fituation  that  he  eyes  the  birds  on 
the  hedges  and  trees.  The  birds  have  fuch  an  antipathy 
againit  him,  that  they  no  fooner  perceive  him  than  they 
fend  forth  fhrill  cries  to  advertife  their  neighbours  of  the 
enemy's  approach.  The  jays  and  blackbirds,  in  particu- 
lar, follow  the  fox  from  tree  to  tree,  fometimes  two  or 
three  hundred  paces,  often  repeating  the  watch-cries. 
The  Count  de  Buffon  kept  two  young  foxes,  which,  when 
at  liberty,  attacked  the  poultry  ;  but,  after  they  were 
chained,  they  never  attempted  to  touch  a  fmgle  fowl.  A 
living  hen  was  fixed  near  them  for  whole  nights  ;  and, 
though  deititute  of  victuals  for  many  hours,  in  fpite  of 
hunger  and  of  opportunity,  they  never  forgot  that  they 
were  chained,  and  gave  the  hen  no  diflurbance. 

In  Kamtfchatka,  the  animals  called  gluttons  employ  a 
fingular  flratagem  for  killing  the  fallow-deer.  They  climb 
up  a  tree,  and  carry  with  them  a  quantity  of  that  fpecies 
of  mofs  of  which  the  deer  are  very  fond.  When  a  deer 
approaches  near  the  tree,  the  glutton  throws  down  the 
mofs.  If  the  deer  flops  to  eat  the  mofs,  the  glutton  in- 
flantly  darts  down  upon  its  back,  and,  after  fixing  him- 
felf firmly  between  the  horns,  tears  out  its  eyes,  which 
torments  the  animal  to  fuch  a  degree,  that,  whether  to  put 
an  end  to  its  torments,  or  to  get  rid  of  its  cruel  enemy,  it 
flrikes  its  head  againfl  the  trees  till  it  falls  down  dead. 
The  glutton  divides  the  flefh  of  the  deer  into  convenient 

portions. 


3<56  THE   PHILOSOPHY 

portions,  and  conceals  them  in  the  earth  to  ferve  for  future 
provifions.  The  gluttons  on  the  river  Lena  kill  horfes 
in  the  fame  manner  *. 

ioThere  arefeveral  fpecies  of  rats  in  Kamtfchatka.  The 
moft  remarkable  kind  is  called  tegulchitch  by*the  natives. 
Thefe  rats  make  neat  and  fpacious  nefts  under  ground. 
They  are  lined  with  turf,  and  divided  into  different  apart- 
ments, in  which  the  rats  depofit'  (lores  of  provifions  for 
fupporting  them  during  the  winter.  It  is  worthy  of  re- 
mark, that  the  rats  of  this  country  never  touch  the  pro- 
vifions laid  up  for  the  winter,  except  when  they  cannot 
procure  nourifhment  any  where  elfe.  Thefe  rats,  like  the 
Tartars,  change  their  habitations.  Sometimes  they  to- 
tally abandon  Kamtfchatka  for  feveral  years,  and  their 
retreat  greatly  alarms  the  inhabitants,  which  they  confider 
as  a  prefage  of  a  tainy  feafon,  and  of  a  bad  year  for 
hunting.  The  return  of  thefe  animals  is,  of  courfe, 
looked  upon  as  a  good  omen.  Whenever  they  appear, 
the  happy  news  is  foon  fpread  over  all  parts  of  the  coun- 
try. They  always  take  their  departure  in  the  fpring,  when 
they  alfemble  in  prodigious  numbers,  and  traverfe  rivers, 
lakes,  and  even  arms  of  the  fea.  After  they  have  made 
a  long  voyage,  they  frequently  lie  motionlefs  on  the  more, 
as  if  they  were  dead.  When  they  recover  their  ftrength 
they  recommence  their  march.  The  inhabitants  of  Kamt- 
fchatka are  very  felicitous  for  the  prefervation  of  thefe 
animals.  They  never  do  the  rats  any  injury,  but  give 
them  every  aflifhance  when  they  lie  weakened  and  extend-^ 
€d  on  the  ground.  They  generally  return  to  Kamtfchatka 
about  the  month  of  October ;  and  they  are  fometimes 
met  with  in  fuch  prodigious  numbers  that  travellers  are 
obliged  to  flop  two  hours  till  the  whole  troop  paffes.  The 
track  of  ground  they  travel  in  a  fmgle  fummer  is  not  lefs 
wonderful  than  the  regularity  they  obferve  in  their  march, 
and  that,  inflindive  impulfe  which  enables  them  to  fore- 
fee,  with  certainty,  the  changes  of  times  and  of  feafons. 
With  regard  to  Elrds^  their  artifices  are  not  lefs  nume- 
rous nor  lefs  furprifmg  than  thofe  of  quadrupeds.  The  eagle 
and  hawk-kinds  are  remarkable  for  the  fharpnefs  of  their 

fight, 

•  Gazette  Literahe,  vol.  1.  pag.  481.     S. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  368 

fight,  and  the  arts  they  employ  in  catching  their  prey. 
Their  movements  are  rapid  or  flow,  according  to  their  in- 
tentions, and  the  fituation  of  the  animals  they  wifh  to 
devour.  Rapacious  birds  uniformly  endeavour  to  rife 
higher  in  the  air  than  their  prey,  that  they  may  have  an 
opportunity  of  darting  forcibly  down  upon  it  with  their 
pounces.  To  counteract  thefe  artifices,  Nature  has  en- 
dowed the  fmaller  and  more  innocent  fpecies  of  birds  with 
many  arts  of  defence.  When  a  hawk  appears,  the  fmall 
birds,  if  they  find  it  convenient,  conceal  themfelves  in 
hedges  or  brufh-wood.  When  deprived  of  this  opportu- 
nity, they  often,  in  great  numbers,  feem  to  follow  the 
hawk,  and  to  expofe  themfelves  unnecefTarily  to  danger, 
while,  in  fact,  by  their  numbeis,  their  perpetual  chan- 
ges of  direction,  and  their  uniform  endeavours  to  rife 
above  him,  they  perplex  the  hawk  to  fuch  a  degree,  that 
he  is  unable  to  fix  upon  a  fingle  object ;  and,  after  ex- 
erting all  his  art  and  addrefs,  he  is  frequently  obliged  to 
relinquifh  the  purfuit.  When  in  the  extremity  of  danger, 
and  after  employing  every  other  artifice  in  vain,  fmall 
birds  have  been  often  known  to  fly  to  men  for  protection. 
This  is  a  plain  indication  that  thefe  animals,  though  they 
in  general  avoid  the  human  race,  are  by  no  means  fo 
much  afraid  of  man  as  of  rapacious  birds. 

The  ravens  often  frequent  the  fea-fhores  in  queft  of 
food.  When  they  find  their  inability  to  break  the  (hells 
of  mufcles,  &c.  to  accomplifh  this  purpofe  they  ufe  a 
very  ingenious  ftratagem  :  They  carry  a  mufcle,  or  other 
fhell-fim,  high  up  in  the  air,  and  then  dafli  it  down  upon 
a  rock,  by  which  means  the  (hell  is  broken,  and  they  ob- 
tain the  end  they  had  in  view. 

The  wood-pecker  is  furniflied  with  a  very  long  and  vo- 
luble tongue.  It  feeds  upon  ants  and  other  fmall  infects. 
Nature  has  endowed  this  bird  with  a  fingular  inftinct. 
It  knows  how  to  procure  food  without  feeing  its  prey.  It 
attaches  itfelf  to  the  trunks  or  branches  of  decayed  trees  ; 
and,  wherever  it  perceives  a  hole  or  crevice,  it  darts  in 
its  long  tongue,  and  brings  it  out  loaded  with  infects  of 
different  kinds.  This  operation  Is  certainly  inftinctive ; 
but  the  inftinft  is  affifted  by  the  inftruttion  of  the  parents ; 

•  for 


368  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

for  the  young  are  no  fooner  able  to  fly,  than  the  parents, 
by  the  force  of  example,  teach  them  to  refort  to  trees, 
and  to  infert  their  tongues  indifcriminately  into  every  hole 
or  fiffure. 

Of  the  ceconomy  of  Fijhes,  as  formerly  remarked,  our 
knowledge  is  extremely  limited.  But,  as  the  ocean  ex- 
hibits a  perpetual  and  a  general  fcene  of  attack  and  de- 
fence, the  arts  of  afiault  and  of  evafion  mud,  of  courfe, 
be  exceedingly  various.  For  the  prefervation  of  ibme 
fpecies  of  fifties,  Nature  has  armed  them  with  ftrong  and 
fharp  pikes.  Others,  as  the  perch-kind,  are  defended 
with  ftrong  bony  rays  in  their  fins.  Others,  as  the  uni- 
valve fhell-fifh,  retire  into  their  fhells  upon  the  approach 
of  danger.  The  bivalves  and  multivalves,  when  attacked, 
inflantly  fhut  their  fhells,  which,  in  general,  is  a  fufficient 
protection  to  them.  Some  univalves,  as  the  limpet-kind, 
attach  themfelves  fo  firmly,  by  excluding  the  air,  to  rocks 
and  ftones,  that,  unlefs  quickly  furprifed,  no  force  infe- 
rior to  that  of  breaking  the  fhell  can  remove  them.  The 
flying-fifh,  when  purfued,  darts  out  of  the  water,  and 
takes  refuge  in  the  air,  in  which  it  is  for  fome  time  fup- 
ported  by  the  operation  of  its  large  and  pliable  fins.  The 
torpedo  is  furnifhed  with  a  remarkable  apparatus  for  felf- 
prefervation :  It  repels  every  hoftile  attempt  by  an  electri- 
cal ftroke,  which  confounds  and  intimidates  its  enemies. 
Several  fifties,  and  particularly  the  falmon-kind,  when 
about  to  generate,  leave  the  ocean,  afcend  the  rivers,  de- 
pofit  their  eggs  in  the  fand,  and,  after  making  a  proper 
nidus  for  their  future  progeny,  return  to  the  ocean  from 
whence  they  came.  Others,  as  the  herring-kind,  though 
they  feldom  go  up  rivers,  aflemble  in  myriads  from  all 
quarters,  and  approach  the  fhores,  or  afcend  arms  of  the 
fea,  for  the  purpofe  of  propagating  the  fpecies,  and  che- 
rifhing  their  offspring.  When  that  operation  is  perform- 
ed, they  leave  the  coafts,  and  difperfe  in  the  ocean,  till 
the  fame  inftin&ive  impulfe  forces  them  to  obferve  a  fimi- 
lar  conduct  next  feafon.  This  migration  of  falmons, 
herrings,  and  many  other  fifties,  from  the  ocean  to  the 
rivers  or  fliores,  is  of  infinite  advantage  to  mankind. 
They  fupply  us  occafionally,  and  in.  ibme  countries,  as 

Great 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.        36> 

Great-Britain,  and  particularly  Scotland,  with  abundance 
of  nourifliing  and  luxurious  food ;  and,  if  our  fifheries 
were  once  put  upon  a  proper  footing,  they  would  foon 
conftitute  one  of  the  mod  powerful  incentives  to  induf- 
try,  and  become  a  great  and  important  fource  of  national 
ftrength  and  profperity. 

The  infefi  tribes,  though  comparatively  diminutive, 
are  not  deficient  in  artifice  and  addrefs.  With  much  art 
the  fpider  fpins  his  web.  It  ferves  him  the  double  pur- 
pofe  of  an  habitation,  and  of  a  machine  for  catching  his 
food.  With  incredible  patience  and  perfeverance  he  lies 
in  the  center  of  his  web  for  days,  and  fometimes  for 
weeks,  before  an  ill-fated  fly  happens  to  be  entangled. 
One  fpecies  of  fpider,  which  is  fmall,  of  a  blackiih  co- 
lour, and  frequents  cottages  or  out-houfes,  I  have  known, 
to  live  during  the  whole  winter  months  without  almofl 
the  poflibiiity  of  receiving  any  nourifhment ;  for,  during 
that  period,  not  a  fly  of  any  Idnd  could  be  difcovered  in. 
the  apartment.  If  they  had  been  in  a  torpid  itate,  like 
fome  other  animals,  the  wonder  of  their  furviving  the 
want  of  food  fo  long  would  not  have  been  fo  great.  But, 
in  the  fevereil  weather,  and  through  the  whole  courfe  of 
the  winter,  they  were  perfectly  acHve  and  lively.  Nei- 
ther did  they  feem  to  be  in  the  lead  emaciated. 

The  formica-lea,  or  ant-lion,  is  a  fmall  infect,  fomewhat: 
refembling  a  wood-loufe,  but  larger.  Its  head  is  flat, 
and  armed  with  two  fine  moveable  crotchets,  or  pincers. 
It  has  fix  legs,  and  its  body,  which  terminates  in  a  point, 
is  compofed  of  a  number  of  membranous  rings.  In  the 
fand,  or  in  finely  pulverifed  earth,  this  animal  digs  a  hole 
in  the  form  of  a  funnel,  at  the  bottom  of  which  it  lies 
in  ambufh  for  its  prey.  As  it  always  walks  backward,  it 
cannot  purfue  any  infect.  To  fupply  this  defect,  it  lays 
a  fnare  for  them,  and  efpecially  for  the  ant,  which  is  its 
favourite  food.  It  generally  lies  concealed  under  the  fand 
in  the  bottom  of  its  funnel  or  trap,  and  feldom  exhibits 
more  than  the  top  of  its  head.  In  digging  a  funnel,  the 
formica-leo  begins  with  tracing  a  circular  furrow  in  the 
fand,  the  circumference  of  which  determines  the  fize  of 

A  a  a  the 


37p  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

the  funnel,  which  is  often  an  inch  deep.  After  the  firft 
furrow  is  made,  the  animal  traces  a  fecond,  which  is  ai* 
ways  concentric  with  the  fir  ft.  It  throws  out  the  fand, 
as  with  a  {hovel,  from  the  fucceflive  furrows  or  circles, 
by  means  of  its  fquare  flat  head  and  one  of  its  fore-legs. 
It  proceeds  in  this  manner  till  it  has  completed  its  funnel, 
which  it  does  with  furprifmg  promptitude  and  addrefs. 
At  the  bottom  of  this  artful  fnare  it  lies  concealed  and 
immoveable.  When  an  ant  happens  to  make  too  near 
an  approach  to  the  margin  of  the  funnel,  the  fides  of 
which  are  very  fteep,  the  fine  fand  gives  way,  and  the 
unwary  animal  tumbles  down  to  the  bottom.  The  for- 
mica-leo  inftantly  kills  the  ant,  buries  it  under  the  fand, 
and  fucks  out  its  vitals.  It  afterwards  pufhes  out  the 
empty  ikin,  repairs  the  diforder  introduced  into  its  ihare, 
and  again  lies  in  ambufli  for  a  frefh  prey. 

We  formerly  took  fome  notice  of  that  fpecies  of  fpi- 
der  which  carries  her  eggs  in  a  bag  attached  to  her  belly. 
A  fpider  of  this  kind  was  thrown  into  the  funnel  of  a 
formica-leo.  The  latter  inftantly  feized  the  bag  of  eggs, 
and  endeavoured  to  drag  it  under  the  fand.  The  fpide,r, 
from  a  ftrong  love  of  offspring,  allowed  its  own  body  to 
be  carried  along  with  the  bag.  But  the  flender  filk  by 
which  it  was  fixed  to  the  animal's  belly  broke,  and  a  fe- 
paration  took  place.  The  fpider  immediately  feized  the 
bag  with  her  pincers,  and  exerted  all  her  efforts  to  re- 
gain the  objecl:  of  her  affeclions.  But  thefe  efforts  were 
ineffectual ;  for  the  formica-leo  gradually  funk  the  bag 
deeper  and  deeper  in  the  fand.  The  fpider,  however, 
rather  than  quit  her  hold,  allowed  herfelf  to  be  buried 
alive.  In  a  fhort  time,  the  obferver  removed  the  fand, 
and  took  out  the  fpider.  She  was  perfectly  unhurt ;  for 
the  formica-leo  had  not  made  any  attack  upon  her.  But, 
fo  ftrong  was  her  attachment  to  her  eggs,  that,  though 
frequently  touched  with  a  twig,  me  would  not  relinquifh 
the  place  which  contained  them  *. 

When  arrived  at  its  full  growth,  the  formica-led  gives 
up  the  buimefs  of  an  eninaring  hunter.  He  deierts  his 

former 

.     *  Oeuvres  de  Bonnet,  vol.  4.  pag.  -595.-  8vo  edit.  Amftcrchm  1769.     &, 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.        371 

former  habitation,  and  crawls  aboxit  for  feme  time  on 
the  furface  of  the  earth.  He  at  laft  retires  under  the 
ground,  fpins  a  round  filken  pod,  and  is  foon.  transformed 
into  a  fly. 


CHAPTER        XVI. 

Of  the  Society  of  Animals. 


THE  affociating  principle,  from  which  fo  many  ad- 
..vantages  are  derived,  is  not  confined  to  the  human 
fpecies,  but  extends,  in  fome  inftances,  to  every  clafs  of 
animals. 

It  is  remarked  by  Buffon,  and  fome  other  authors, 
that  the  date  of  Nature,  which  had  long  occupied .  the 
attention  and  refearches  of  philofophers,  was  rejeded  by 
them  after  the  difcovery  was  made.  In  the  eflimation  of 
the  authors  alluded  to,  the  favage  ftate  is  the  (late  of 
Nature.  The  firft  natural  condition  of  mankind  is  the 
union  of  a  male  and  female.  Thefe  produce  a  family, 
who,  from  neceffity,  or,  in  other  words,  from  parental 
and  filial  affection,  continue  together,  and  afliil  each  other 
in  procuring  food  and  melter.  This  family,  like  moil 
families  in  eftabjifhed  civil  focieties,  feel  their  own  weak- 
nefs,  and  their  inability  to  fupply  their  wants  without 
more  powerful  refources  than  their  feeble  exertions* 
When  this  wandering  and  defencelefs  family  accidentally 
meet  with  another  family  in  the  fame  condition,  Nature^ 
it  is  faid,  teaches  them  to  unite  for  mutual  fupport  and 
protection.  The  aflbciation  of  two  families  may  be  con- 
iidered  as  the  firft  formation  of  a  tribe  or  nation.  When 
a  number  of  tribes  happen  to  unite,  they  only  become 
a  larger  or  more  numerous  nation.  A  fmgle  pair,  it  is 
true,  if  placed  in  a  fituation  where  plenty  of  food  could 
be  procured  without  much  labour,  might,  in  a  fucceffion 

of 


372  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

of  ages,  produce  any  indefinite  number.  This  is  precifely 
the  fituation  in  which  Mofes  has  placed  our  firft  parents. 
He  has  added  another  circumftance  highly  favourable  to 
a  fpeedy  population.  Inftead  of  the  prefent  brevity  of 
human  life,  he  informs  us,  that  men,  in  the  firft  periods 
of  the  world,  lived  and  propagated  feveral  hundred  years. 

In  countries  thinly  peopled  with  favages,  it  is  extremely 
probable,  that  focieties  are  formed  by  the  gradual  union 
of  families  and  tribes.  The  increafe  of  power  arifing 
from  mutual  affiftance,  and  a  thoufand  other  comfortable 
circumftances,  foon  ^contribute  to  cement  more  firmly  the 
aflbciated  members.  Some  of  the  arts  of  life,  befide  that 
of  hunting,  are  occafionally  difcovered  either  by  accident 
or  by  the  ingenuity  of  individuals.  In  this  manner,  gra- 
dual advances  are  made  from  the  favage  to  the  civilized 
'condition  of  mankind.  This  is  a  very  fhort  view  of  the 
origin  of  fociety,  which  has  been  adopted  by  moft  au- 
thors both  ancient  and  modern,  though  many  of  them 
have  derived  the  afibciating  principle  from  very  different, 
and  even  from  oppofite  caufes,  which  it  is  no  part  of  our 
plan  either  to  enumerate  or  to  refute.  Some  writers,  as  A- 
riftotle,  and  a  few  moderns,  implicit  followers  of  his  opini- 
ons, deny  that  man  is  naturally  a  gregarious  or  aflbciating 
animal.  To  render  this  notion  confiftent  with  the  actual 
and  univerfal  ftate  of  the  human  race,  thefe  authors  have 
had  recourfe  to  puerile  conceits,  and  to  queftionable  facls, 
which  it  would  be  fruitlefs  to  relate.  Other  writers,  poffef- 
fed  of  greater  judgment  and  difcernment,  and  lefs  warped 
with  vanity  and  hypothetical  phantoms,  have  derived  the 
origin  of  fociety  from  its  real  and  only  fource,  Nature 
herielf. 

That  the  aflbciating  principle  is  inftin&ive,  hardly  re- 
quires a  proof.  An  appeal  to  the  feelings  of  any  human 
being,  and  to  the  univerfal  condition  of  mankind,  is  fuf- 
ficient.  Thefe  feelings,  it  may  be  faid,  are  acquired  by 
education  and  habit.  By  thefe  caufes,  it  is  true,  our  fo- 
cial  feelings  are  ftrengthened  and  confirmed ;  but  their 
origin  is  coeval  with  the  exiftence  of  the  firfl  human 
mind.  Let  any  man  attend  to  the  eyes,  the  features,  and 
the  geftures  of  a  child  upon  the  breaft,  when  another 

child 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.        373 

child  is  prefented  to  it ;  both  inftantly,  previous  to  the 
poffibility  of  inftru&ion  or  habit,  exhibit  the  moft  evident 
expreilions  of  joy.  Their  eyes  fparkle,  their  features  and 
geftures  demonftrate,  in  the  moft  unequivocal  manner,  a 
mutual  attachment,  and  a  ftrong  defire  of  approaching 
each  other,  not  with  a  hoftile  intention,  but  with  an  ar- 
dent affeclion,  which,  in  that  pure  and  uncontaminated 
flate  of  our  being,  does  honour  to  human  nature. ,  When 
farther  advanced,  children  who  are  flrangers  to  each 
other,  though  their  focial  appetite  is  equally  flrong,  dif- 
cover  a  mutual  fhynefs  of  approach.  This  fhynels,  or 
modefty,  however,  is  foon  conquered  by  the  more  pow- 
erful inftinct  of  affociation.  They  daily  mingle  and  (port 
together.  Their  natural  affections,  which,  at  that  period, 
are  itrong,  and  unbiaffed  by  thofe  felfifh  and  vicious  mo- 
tives which  too  often  conceal  and  thwart  the  intentions 
of  Nature,  create  warm  friendships  that  frequently  con- 
tinue during  their  lives,  and  produce  the  mofl  beneficial 
and  cordial  effects.  When  we  thus  fee  with  our  eyes, 
that  the  affociating  principle  appears  at  a  period  much 
more  early  than  many  of  our  other  inftincts,  who  will 
liften  to  thofe  writers  who  choofe  to  deny  that  man  is, 
naturally,  an  affociating  or  gregarious  animal  ? 

With  regard  to  the  advantages  we  derive  from  affoci- 
ation, a  volume  would  not  be  fufficient  to  enumerate 
them.  Man,  from  the  comparatively  great  number  of 
inftincts  with  which  his  mind  is  endowed,  neceffarily 
poffeffes  a  portion  of  the  reafoning  faculty  highly  fuperior 
to  that  of  any  other  animal.  He  alone  enjoys  the  power 
of  communicating  and  expreffing  his  ideas  by  articulate 
and  artificial  language.  This  ineftimable  prerogative  is, 
perhaps,  one  of  the  greateft  fecondary  bends  of  fociety, 
and  the  greatefl  fource  of  improvement  to  the  human 
intellect.  Without  artificial  language,  though  Nature 
has  beftowed  on  every  animal  a  mode  of  exprefling  its 
wants  and  defires,  its  pleafures  and  pains,  what  an  hu- 
miliating figure  would  the  human  fpecies  exhibit,  even 
upon  the  fuppofition  that  they  did  affociate  ?  But,  when 
language  and  affociation  are  conjoined,  the  human  intel- 
lect, in  the  progrefs  of  time,  arrives  at  a  high  degree  of 

perfection. 


374  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

perfe&Ion.  Society  gives  rife  to  virtue,  honour,  govern- 
ment, fubordination,  arts,  fcience,  order,  happinefs.  All 
the  individuals  of  a  community  conduct  themfelves  upon 
a  regulated  fyftem.  Under  the  influence  of  eftabh'lried 
laws,  kings  and  magiftrates,  by  the  exercife  of  legal  au- 
thority, encourage  virtue,  reprefs  vice,  and  diffufe,  through 
the  extent  of  their  jurifdictions,  the  happy  effects' of  their 
adminiflration.  In  fociety,  as  in  a  fertile  climate,  human 
talents  germinate  and  are  expanded;  the  mechanical  and 
liberal  arts  flourish  ;  poets,  orators,  hiftorians,  philofo- 
phers,  [lawyers,  phyficians,  and  theologians,  are  pro, 
duced.  Thefe  truths  are  pleafant ;  and  it  were  to  be 
wifhed  that  no  evils  accompanied  them.  But,  through 
the  whole  extent  of  Nature,  it  fhould  appear,  from  our 
limited  views,  that  good  and  evil,  pleafure  and  pain,  are 
neceffary  and  perpetual  concomitants. 

The  advantages  of  fociety  are  immenfe  and  invaluable, 
But  the  inconveniencies,  hardflrips,  injuftice,  oppreffions, 
and  cruelties,  which  too  often  originate  from  it,  are  great 
and  lamentable.  Even  under  the  mildeft  and  beft  regu- 
lated governments,  animoftties,  jealouftes,  avarice,  fraud, 
and  chicane,  are  unfortunately  never  removed  from  our 
obfervation.  In  abfolute  monarchies,  and  particularly  in 
defpotic  governments,  the  fcenes  of  private  and  of  gene- 
ral calamity  and  diilrefs  are  often  too  dreadful  to  be  def- 
cribed.  Notwithstanding  all  thefe  difadvantages,  how- 
ever, any  government  is  preferable  to  anarchy;  and  the 
comforts,  pleafures,  and  improvements,  we  receive  from 
aflbciating  with  each  other,  overbalance  all  the  evils  to 
which  fociety  gives  rife. 

From  an  attentive  obfervation  of  the  manners  and  ceco- 
nomy  of  animals,  fociety  has  been  diftinguiflied  }nto  two 
kinds,  which  have  been  called  proper ,  and  improper. — 
i.  Proper  Societies p,  comprehend  all  thofe  animals  who  not 
Only  live  together  in  numbers,  but  carry  on  certain  ope- 
rations which  have  a  direct  tendency  to  promote  the  wel- 
fare and  happinefs  of  the  community.  2.  Improper  Sc- 
cieties,  include  all  thofe  animals  who  herd  together,  and 
love  the  company  of  each  other,  without  carrying  on  any 
common  operations. 

i.  Pro- 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          375 

i.  Proper  Societies. — It  is  aimed  needlefs  to  remark  that 
man  holds  the  firft  rank  in  animal  aflbciations  of  this  kind. 
If  men  did  not  aflid  each  other,  no  operation  of  any  mag- 
nitude, or  which  could  mow  any  great  fuperiority  of  ta- 
lents above  thofe  of  the  brute  creation,  could  poffibly  be 
effected.  A  fmgle  family,  or  even  a  few  families  united, 
like  other  carnivorous  animals,  might  hunt  their  prey, 
and  procure  a  fufficient  quantity  of  food.  They  might, 
like  the  bear,  lodge  in  the  cavities  of  trees ;  they  might 
occupy  natural  caves  in  the  rocks  ;  they  might  even  build 
huts  with  branches  of  trees  and  with  turf,  and  cement 
thefe  grofs  materials  with  clay.  This  lowefl  and  moil  ab- 
ject view  of  human  nature  is  not  exaggerated.  It  were 
to  be  wifhed  that  this  grovelling  condition  of  mankind 
were  fictitious,  and  that,  in  many  regions  of  the  globe,  it 
did  not,  at  this  moment,  exifl.  Thefe  operations  of  men, 
when  only  acquainted  with  the  mere  rudiments  of  fociety, 
indicate  parts  little  fuperior  to  thofe  of  the  brutes.  Man, 
even  in  his  mod  uninformed  (late,  poflefles  the  inftin&s, 
or  the  germs,  of  every  fpecies  of  knowledge  and  of  ge- 
nius. But  they  mud  be  cherifhed,  expanded,  and  brought 
gradually  to  perfection.  It  is  by  numerous  and  regularly- 
edablifhed  focieties  alone  that  fuch  glorious  exhibitions  of 
human  intellect  can  be  produced.  What  is  the  hut  of  a 
favage  when  compared  to  the  palace  of  a  prince  ?  or  what 
his  canoe  when  compared  to  a  fird-rate  (hip  of  war  ? 

Next  to  the  intelligence  exhibited  in  human  fociety, 
that  of  the  beavers  is  the  mod  confpicuous.  Their  ope- 
rations in  preparing,  fafhioning,  and  tranfporting,  the 
heavy  materials  for  building  their  winter  habitations,  as 
formerly  remarked  *,  are  truly  aftoniming  ;  and,  when 
we  read  their  hiftory,  we  are  apt  to  think  that  we  are  pe- 
rufmg  the  hiftory  of  man  in  a  period  of  fociety  not  incon- 
iiderably  advanced.  It  is  only  by  the  united  ftr  ength,  and 
co-operation  of  numbers,  that  the  beavers  could  be  en- 
abled to  produce  fuch  wonderful  effects  ;  for,  in  a  foli- 
tary  ftate,  as  they  at  prefent  appear  in  fome  northern  parts 
of  Europe,  the  beavers,  like  folitary  favages,  are  timid  and 
ftupid  animals.  They  neither  affociate,  nor  attempt  to 

conftruct 

*  Sec  above,  page  281.  &c.    S. 


376  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

conftrud  villages,  but  content  themfelves  with  digging 
holes  in  the  earth.  Like  men  under  the  oppreflion  of 
defpotic  governments,  the  fpirit  of  the  European  beavers 
is  depreffed,  and  their  genius  is  extinguifhed  by  terror, 
and  by  a  perpetual  and  necefiary  attention  to  individual 
fafety.  The  northern,  parts  of  Europe  are  now  fo  popu- 
lous, and  the  animals  there  are  fo  perpetually  hunted  for 
the  fake  of  their  furs,  that  they  have  no  opportunity  of 
affociating;  of  courfe,  thefe  wonderful  marks  of  their 
fagacity,  which  they  exhibit  in  the  remote  and  uninha- 
bited regions  of  North-America,  are  no  longer  to  be  found. 
The  fociety  of  beavers  is  a  fociety  of  peace  and  of  affec- 
tion. They  never  quarrel  or  injure  one  another,  but  live 
together  in  different  numbers,  according  to  the  dimenfi- 
ons  of  particular  cabins,  in  the  moil  perfect  harmony. 
The  principle  of  their  union  is  neither  monarchical  nor 
defpotic  :  For  the  inhabitants  of  the  different  cabins,  as 
well  as  thofe  of  the  whole  village,  feem  to  acknowledge 
no  chief  or  leader  whatever.  Their  affociation  prefents  to 
our  obfervation  a  model  of  a  pure  and  perfect  republic, 
the  only  bafis  of  which  is  mutual  and  unequivocal  at- 
tachment. They  have  no  law  but  the  law  of  love  and  of 
parental  affection.  Humanity  prompts  us  to  wifh  that  it 
were  poilible  to  eftablifh  republics  of  this  kind  among 
mankind.  But  the  difpofitions  of  men  have  little  affinity 
to  thofe  of  the  beavers. 

The  hampfter,  or  German  marmot,  and  fome  other 
quadrupeds  of  this  kind,  live  in  fociety,  and  aflift  each 
other  in  digging  and  rendering  commodious  their  fubter- 
raneous  habitations.  The  operations  of  the  marmots 
have  already  been  defcribed  ;  and  the  nature  of  their  fo- 
ciety, as  they  continue  during  the  winter  in  a  torpid  (late, 
is  either  lefs  known,  or  does  not  excite  fo  much  admira- 
tion as  that  of  the  beavers. 

Pairing  birds,  in  fome  meafure,  may  be  confidered  as 
forming  proper  focieties  ;  becaufe,  in  general,  the  males 
and  females  mutually  affifl  each  other  in  building  nefls 
and  feeding  their  young.  But  this  fociety,  except  in  the 
eagle-tribes,  commonly  continues  no  longer  than  their 
mutual  offspring  are  fully  able  to  provide  tor  themfelves. 

None 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  377 

None  of  the  feathered  tribes,  as  far  as  we  know,  unite 
in  bodies,  in  order  to  carry  on  any  operation  common  to 
the  whole. 

Neither  do  we  learn  from  hiftory  that  fifhes  ever  affo- 
elate  for  the  purpofe  of  executing  any  common  operation. 
Many  of  them,  as  herrings,  falmons,  &c.  affemble  in  mul- 
titudes at  particular  feafons  of  the  year  ;  but  this  aflbcia- 
tion,  to  which  they  are  impelled  by  inftinct,  has  no  com- 
mon object ;  for  each  individual  is  ftimulated  to  act  in 
this  manner  by  its  own  motives,  and  no  general  effect  is 
produced  by  mutual  exertions. 

In  proper  focieties,  each  individual  not  only  attends  to 
his  own  prefervation  and  welfare,  but  all  the  members 
co-operate  in  certain  laborious  offices  which  produce  ma- 
ny common  advantages  that  could  not  otherwife  be  pro- 
cured. In  fome  focieties,  the  general  principle  of  arfoci- 
ation  and  of  mutual  labour  is  purely  inftin&ive,  though,  in 
many  cafes,  individuals  learn,  by  obfervation  and  expe- 
rience, to  modify  or  accommodate  this  general  principle 
according  to  particular  accidents  or  circumflances  ;  fome 
examples  of  which  have  already  been  given  in  the  chap^ 
ter  upon  inftincl:. 

The  infect  tribes  furnifh  many  inftances  of  proper  fo- 
cieties. The  honey-bees  not  only  labour  in  common  with 
aftonifhing  affiduity  and  art,  but  their  whole  attention  and 
affections  feem  to  center  in  the  peribn  of  the  queen  or  fo- 
vereign  of  the  hive.  She  is  the  bafis  of  their  aflbciation 
and  of  all  their  operations.  When  fhe  dies  by  any  accU 
dent,  the  whole  community  are  inftantly  in  diforcler.  All 
their  labours  ceafe.  No  new  cells  are  conftructed.  Nei- 
ther honey  nor  wax  are  collected.  Nothing  but  perfect 
anarchy  prevails,  till  a  new  queen  or  female  is  obtained. 
The  government  or  fociety  of  bees  is  more  of  a  monar- 
chical than  of  a  republican  nature.  The  whole  members 
of  the  ftate  feem  to  refpect  and  to  be  directed  by  a  fingle 
female.  This  fact  affords  a  ftrong  inflance  of  the  force 
and  wifdom  of  Nature.  The  female  alone  is  the  mother 
of  the  whole  hive,  however  numerous.  Without  her  the 
fpecies  could  not  be  continued.  Nature,  therefore,  has 
endowed  the  reil  of  the  hive  with  a  wonderful  affection 

Bbb  to 


3;8  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

to  their  common  parent.  For  the  reception  of  her 
Nature  impels  them  to  conftruct  cells,  and  to  lay  up  ftores 
of  provifions  for  winter  fubfiftence.  Thefe  operations  pro- 
ceed from  pure  inflinctive  impulfes.  But  every  inftincl: 
neceffarily  fuppofes  a  degree  of  intellect,  a  fubftratum  to 
be  acted  upon,  otherwile  no  impulfe  could  be  felt,  and, 
of  courfe,  no  action  nor  mark  of  intelligence  could  poffi- 
bly  be  produced. 

That  the  intelligence,  the  government,  and  the  fagacity 
of  bees,  have  been  frequently  exaggerated,  and  as  fre- 
quently mifunderflood,  no  real  philofopher,  or  natural 
hiilorian,  will  pretend  to  deny.  But  the  late  ingenious 
Count  de  Buffon,  through  the  whole  of  his  great  work, 
betrays  the  flrongeft  inclination  to  deny  that  brutes,  even 
thofe  which  are  efleemed  to  be  the  moft  fagacious,  as  the 
dog,  the  elephant,  &c.  not  to  mention  the  inferior  tribes, 
as  birds,  fifties,  and  infects,  are  endowed  with  the  fmalleft 
portion  of  mind  or  intellect,  but  that  all  their  move- 
ments, their  expreflions,  their  defires,  their  arts,  are  folely 
the  refults  of  mechanical  impulfes.  The  Count  is  pecu- 
liarly fevere  in  his  declamations  againfl  the  fagacity  of 
the  honey-bees,  and  the  celebrators  of  their  ceconomy 
and  manners.  <  The  genius  of  folitary  bees,'  he  remarks, 
'  is  vaftly  inferior  to  that  of  the  gregarious  fpecies  ;  and 
c  the  talents  of  thofe  which  affociate  in  fmali  troops  are 

*  lefs  confpicuous  than  of  thofe  that  aflemble  in  numerous 

*  bodies.     Is  not  this  alone  fufficient  to  convince  us,  that 
c  thefeeming  genius  of  bees  is  nothing  but  a  refult  of  pure 
'  mechanlfm^  a  combination  of  movements  proportioned  to 

*  numbers,  an  effect  which  appears  to  be  complicated,  only 
c  becaufe  it  depends  on  thoufands  of  individuals  ?  It  muftr 
4  therefore,  be  admitted,  that  bees,  taken  feparately,  have 
c  lefs  genius  than  the  dog,  the  monkey,  and  moft  other 

*  animals  :  It  will  likewife  be  admitted,  that  they  have  lefs 
c  docility,  lefs  attachment,  and  lefs  fentiment ;  and  that 
'  they  poflefs  fewer  qualities  relative  to  thofe  of  the  hu- 
6  man  fpecies.     Hence  we   ought  to  acknowledge,  that 
6  their  apparent  intelligence  proceeds  folely  from  the  mul- 
'  titude  united.     This  union,  however,  prefuppofes  not  in- 
c  tellectual  powers  ;  for  they  unite  not  from  moral  views : 

'They 


OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.        379 

*  They  find  themfelves  together  without  their  confent. 

*  This  fociety,  therefore,  is  a  phyfical  aflfemblage  ordain- 

*  ed  by  Nature,  and  has  no  dependence  on  knowledge  or 

*  reafoning.     The  mother  bee  produces  at  one  time,  and 

*  in  the  fame  place,  ten  thoufand   individuals,    which, 

*  though  they  were  much  more  ftupid  than  I  have  fup- 

*  pofed  them,  would  be  obliged,  folely  for  the  preferva- 

*  tion  of  their  exiftence,  to  arrange  themfelves  into  fome 

*  order.     As  they  all  a£t  againft  each  other  with  equal 

*  forces,  fuppofing  their  firft  movements  to  produce  pain, 

*  they  would  foon  learn  to  diminifh  this  pain,  or,  in  other 

*  words,  to  afford  mutual  affiftance  :    They,  of  courfe, 

*  would  exhibit  an  air  of  intelligence,  and  of  concurring 

*  in  the  accomplifhment  of  the  fame  end.     A  fuperficiai 

*  obferver  would  inftantly  afcribe  to  them  views  and  ta- 

*  lents  which  they  by  no  means  poffefs  :  He  would  explain 

*  every  action  :  Every  operation  would  have  its  particular 

*  motive,  and  prodigies  of  reafon  would  arife  without 
6  number ;  for  ten  thoufand  individuals  produced  at  one 
'  time,  and  obliged  to  live  together,  muft  all  act  in  the 

*  very  fame  manner  ;  and,  if  endowed  with  feeling,  they 
•'  muft  acquire  the  fame  habits,  affume  that  arrangement 

*  which  is  the  lead  painful,  or  the  mod  eafy  to  themfelves, 
6  labour  in  their  hive,  return  after  leaving  it,  &c.    Hence 

*  the  origin  of  the  many  wonderful  talents  afcribed  to  bees, 

*  fuch  as  their  architecture,  their  geometry,  their  order, 

*  their  forefight,  their  patriotifm,  and,  in  a  word,  their 

*  republic,  the  whole  of  which,  as  I  have  proved,  has  no 

*  exiftence  but  in  the  imagination  of  the  obferver  V 

That  this  mode  of  reafoning  fhould  have  been  ferioufly 
adopted  by  fo  great  a  literary  character  as  that  of  Count 
de  Buffon,  is  truly  aflonifhing.  The  fubftance  of  the 
argument  is,  that  ten  thoufand  bees,  or  other  gregarious 
infects,  when  brought  into  exiftence  at  the  fame  time, 
and  in  the  fame  place,  muft  neceiTarily,  by  the  inconve- 
nience or  pain  arifmg  from  mutual  preifure,  affume  an 
arrangement,  and  conftruct  commodious  and  artful  ha- 
bitations for  the  whole  community.  I  hate  polemical  ar- 
gumentation 5  and  philofophical  abfurdities  are  the  moft 

difficult 

*  Tnwflation,  vol.  3,  page  985.     $. 


380  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

difficult  to  refute.  If  ten  thoufand  butterflies,  or  any 
other  flies,  whofe  inftin&ive  or  mental  powers  differed 
from  thofe  of  the  bee,  mould  be  brought  forth  at  the 
fame  time,  and  in  the  fame  place,  which  might  be  eafily 
effected  by  collecting  their  chryfalids,  Would  thefe  ani- 
mals, from  the  inconveniencies  or  pain  they  might  fuffer 
by  being  crouded  together,  aflfume  a  proper  arrangement, 
and  build  habitations  fuited  to  their  mutual  comfort  and 
prefervation  ?  No.  If  not  allowed  to  efcape  from  their 
prefent  fituation,  they  would  fuffocate  each  other  ;  and, 
if  any  of  them  were  permitted  to  get  out  of  their  prifon, 
inftead  of  returning,  like  the  bees,  they  would  avoid  it 
•with  as  much  horror  as  a  perfon  who  had  made  his  efcape 
from  the  Black  Hole  of  Calcutta.  No  declamatory  rea- 
foning,  however  fpecious,  will  ever  change  the  nature  of 
truth.  Without  fome  portion  of  intellect,  or  what  is 
fynonimous,  of  mental  powers,  How  (hould  the  different 
kinds  of  bees  in  the  fame  hive  be  induced  to  perform  fo 
many  different  operations  ?  While  fome  are  bufily  em- 
ployed at  home  in  the  conftru&ion  of  cells,  others  are 
equally  induftrious  in  the  fields  collecting  materials  for 
carrying  on  the  work.  They  are  no  fooner  relieved  from 
their  load  by  their  companions  and  fellow-labourers  in  the 
hive,  than  they  again  repair  to  the  fields,  and,  with  per- 
fevering  induftry,  fly  from  flower  to  flower  till  they  have 
amaffed  another  load  of  materials,  which  they  immedi- 
ately tranfport  to  the  hive.  In  this  laborious  office  they 
perfiii  for  many  hours  every  day  when  the  weather  per- 
mits. Will  any  man  pretend  to  aiTert,  that  thefe,  and 
many  fimilar  operations  performed  by  bees,  are  the  refults 
of  mechanical  impulfes  *  ?  Are  bees,  when  collecting  ho- 
ney, ;md  the  farina  of  flowers,  at  great  diflances  from 
the  hive,  compelled,  by  the  mechanical  preffure  of  mul- 
titudes, to  affume  a  certain  arrangement,  and  all  of  them 
to  act  in  the  fame  manner  ?  Can  any  animal  be  poffeffed 
of  more  liberty,  or  be  more  free  from  mechanical  re- 
ftraint,  than  a  bee  while  roaming  at  large  in  the  fields  ? 
Befides,  What  fhould  force  a  bee,  while  wallowing  in 
»  luxury, 

*  For  feveral  curious  operations  of  bees,  which  it  will  be  difficult  to  reconcile 
with  any,  principles  of  mechanifin,  the  reader  may  confult  page  302,  &c.     S. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         381 

luxury,  to  return  fo  repeatedly  to  the  hive  with  no 
other  view  than  to  feed  its  companions,  or  to  furnifh 
them  with  materials  for  their  work  ?  Here  every  idea  of 
mechanical  impulfe  is  utterly  excluded.  That  bees,  as 
well  as  other  animals,  are  actuated  by  motives,  or  im- 
pulfes,  it  is  willingly  allowed.  But  thefe  are  not  mecha- 
nical impulfes.  They  are  the  wife  and  irrefiftible  impul- 
fes  of  Nature  upon  their  minds.  If  bees  did  not  afibciate, 
and  mutually  affift  one  another  in  their  various  opera- 
tions, the  fpecies  would  foon  be  anihilated.  Not  one  of 
them,  it  is  probable,  would  furvive  the  firft  winter.  But 
Nature,  ever  folicitous  for  the  prefervation  of  her  pro- 
ductions, has  endowed  their  minds  with  an  aflbciating 
principle,  and  with  inftincls  which  ftimulate  them  to 
perform  all  thofe  wonderful  operations  that  are  neceflary 
for  the  exiftence  of  individuals,  and  the  continuation  of 
the  fpecies. 

What  are  called  the  common  caterpillars  afford  an  in- 
flance  of  proper  aflbciation.  About  the  middle  of  fum- 
mer,  a  butterfly  depofits  from  three  to  four  hundred  eggs 
on  the  leaf  of  a  tree,  from  each  of  which,  in  a  few  days, 
a  young  caterpillar  proceeds.  They  are  no  fooner  hatched 
than  they  begin  to  form  a  common  habitation.  They 
fpin  filken  threads,  which  they  attach  to  one  edge  of  the 
leaf,  and  extend  them  to  the  other.  By  this  operation 
they  make  the  two  edges  of  the  leaf  approach  each  other, 
and  form  a  cavity  refembling  a  hammock.  In  a  fhort 
time,  the  concave  leaf  is  completely  roofed  with  a  cover- 
ing of  filk.  Under  this  tent  the  animals  live  together  in 
mutual  friendfhip  and  harmony.  When  not  difpofed  to 
eat  or  to  fpin,  they  retire  to  their  tent.  It  requires  feveral 
of  thefe  habitations  to  contain  the  whole.  According  as 
the  animals  increafe  in  fize,  the  number  of  their  tents  is 
augmented.  But  thefe  are  only  temporary  and  partial 
lodgements,  conftru&ed  for  mutual  conveniency,'  till  the 
caterpillars  are  in  a  condition  to  build  one  more  fpacious, 
and  which  will  be  fufficient  to  contain  the  whole.  After 
gnawing  one  half  of  the  fubftance  of  fuch  leaves  as  hap- 
pen to  be  near  the  end  of  fome  twig  or  fmall  branch, 
they  begin  their  great  work.  In  conftrufting  this  new 

edifice 


THE    PHILOSOPHY 

edifice  or  neft,  the  caterpillars  encruft  a  confiderable  part 
of  the  twig  with  white  filk.  In  the  fame  manner,  they 
cover  two  or  three  of  fuch  leaves  as  are  neareft  to  the 
termination  of  the  twig.  They  then  fpin  filken  coverings 
of  greater  dimenfions,  in  which  they  inclofe  the  two  or 
three  leaves  together  with  the  twig.  The  neft  is  now  fo 
fpacious  that  it  is  able  to  contain  the  whole  community, 
every  individual  of  which  is  employed  in  the  common 
labour.  Thefe  nefts  are  too  frequently  feen,  in  autumn, 
upon  the  fruit-trees  of  our  gardens.  They  are  ftill  more 
expofed  to  obfervation  in  winter,  when  the  leaves,  which 
formerly  concealed  many  of  them,  are  fallen.  They  con* 
fift  of  large  bundles  of  white  filk  and  withered  leaves, 
without  any  regular  or  conftant  form.  Some  of  them 
are  flat,  and  others  roundiih ;  but  none  of  them  are  def- 
titute  of  angles.  By  different  plain  coverings  extended 
from  the  oppofite  fides  of  the  leaves  and  of  the  twig,  the 
internal  part  of  the  neft  is  divided  into  a  number  of  dif- 
ferent apartments.  To  each  of  thefe  apartments,  which 
feem  to  be  very  irregular,  there  are  paffages  by  which 
the  caterpillars  can  either  go  out  in  queft  of  food,  or 
retire  in  the  evening,  or  during  rainy  weather.  The 
filken  coverings,  by  repeated  layers,  become  at  laft  fo  thick 
and  ftrong,  that  they  refift  all  the  attacks  of  the  wind, 
and  all  the  injuries  of  the  air,  during  eight  or  nine  months. 
About  the  beginning  of  Oclober,  or  when  the  froft  firft 
commences,  the  whole  community  fhut  themfelves  up  in 
the  neft.  During  the  winter  they  remain  immoveable, 
and  feemingly  dead.  But,  when  expofed  to  heat,  they 
foon  difcover  fymptoms  of  life,  and  begin  to  creep.  In 
this  country,  they  feldom  go  out  of  the  neft  till  the  mid-- 
die  or  end  of  April.  When  they  fhut  themfelves  up  for 
the  winter,  they  are  very  fmall ;  but,  after  they  have 
fed  for  fome  days  in  fpring  upon  the  young  and  tender 
leaves,  they  find  the  neft  itfelf,  and  all  the  entrances  to 
it,  too  fmall  for  the  increafed  fize  of  their  bodies.  To 
remedy  this  inconveniency,  thefe  difgufting  reptiles  know 
how  to  enlarge  both  the  neft  and  its  paffages  by  additional 
operations  accommodated  to  their  prefent  ftate.  Into 
thefe  new  lodgings  they  retire  when  they  want  to  repofe, 

to 


OF   NATURAL    HISTORY,,       383 

to'fcreen  themfelves  from  the  injuries  of  the  weather,  or 
to  caft  their  fkins.  In  fine,  after  cafting  their  fkins  feve- 
ral  times,  the  time  of  their  difperfion  arrives.  From  the 
beginning  to  near  the  end  of  June,  they  lead  a  folitary 
life.  Their  focial  difpofition  is  no  longer  felt.  Each  of 
them  fpins  a  pod  of  coarfe  brownifh  filk.  In  a  few  days 
they  are  changed  into  chryfalids  ;  and,  in  eighteen  or 
twenty  days  more,  they  are  transformed  into  butterflies. 
Caterpillars  of  another  fpecies,  which  Reaumur  diftin- 
guifhes  by  the  appellation  of  the  procejjionary  caterpillar^ 
live  in  fociety  till  their  transformation  into  flies.  Thefe 
caterpillars  are  of  the  hairy  kind,  and  are  of  a  reddifh 
colour.  They  inhabit  the  oak,  and  feed  upon  its  leaves. 
When  very  young,  they  have  no  fixed  or  general  habi- 
tation. But,  after  they  have  acquired  about  one  half  of 
their  natural  fize,  they  aflemble  together,  and  conftru& 
a  neft  fufficient  to  accommodate  the  whole.  The  nefts 
of  thefe  caterpillars  are  attached  to  the  trunks  of  the  oak, 
and  are  fituated  fometimes  near  the  earth,  and  fometimes 
feven  or  eight  feet  above  its  furface.  They  confift  of  dif- 
ferent ftrata,  or  layers,  of  filk,  which  are  fpun  by  the 
united  labour  of  the  whole  community*  Their  figure  is 
neither  ftriking  nor  uniform.  On  the  part  of  the  oak 
to  which  they  are  fixed  they  form  a  protuberance  fimilar 
to  thofe  knots  which  are  feen  upon  trees.  This  protube- 
rance fometimes  refembles  a  fegment  of  a  circle,  and 
fometimes  it  is  three  or  four  limes  longer  than  it  is  broad, 
Some  of  thefe  nefts  are  from  eighteen  to  twenty  inches 
long,  and  from  five  to  fix  inches  wide.  About  the  mid- 
dle of  their  convexity,  they  often  rife  more  than  four 
inches  above  the  furface  of  the  tree.  Between  the  trunk 
of  the  tree  and  the  layers  of  filk  a  fingle  hole  is  left,  to 
allow  the  animals  to  go  out  in  quefl  of  food,  and  to  re- 
tire into  the  neft  after  they  are  fatiated.  Notwithstand- 
ing the  great  bulk  of  thefe  nefts,  and  though  there  are 
often  three  or  four  of  them  upon  the  fame  tree,  and  never 
elevated  above  the  height  of  diftincl  vifion,  they  are  not 
eafily  perceived  ;  for  the  filk  of  which  they  are  compofed 
is  cinereous,  and  refembles,  in  colour,  thofe  moffes  with 
which  the  trunk  of  the  oak  is  generally  covered. 

The 


384        •     THE    PHILOSOPHY 

The  inhabitants  of  a  neft,  which  are  numerous,  march 
out,  about  the  fetting  of  the  fun,  to  forage,  under  the 
conduct  of  a  chief  or  leader,  all  whofe  movements  they 
uniformly  follow.  The  order  they  obferve  is  fingular. 
The  firft  rank  confifts  of  fmgle  animals,  the  fecond  of 
two,  the  third  of  three,  the  fourth  of  four,  and  fome- 
times  more.  In  this  manner  they  proceed  in  quell  of 
food  with  all  the  regularity  of  diiciplined  troops.  The 
chief  or  leader  has  no  marks  of  pre-eminence ;  for  any 
individual  that  happens  firft  to  iflue  from  the  neft,  from 
that  circumftance  alone,  becomes  the  leader  of  an  expe- 
dition. After  making  a  full  repaft  upon  the  neighbour- 
ing leaves,  they  return  to  the  neft  in  the  fame  regular 
order  ;  and  this  practice  they  continue  during  the  whole 
period  of  their  exiftence  in  the  caterpillar  ftate.  It  was 
from  this  ftrange  regularity  of  movement  that  Reaumur, 
with  much  propriety,  denominated  thefe  animals  procejfi- 
onary  caterpillars.  When  arrived  at  maturity,  each  in- 
dividual fpins  a  filken  pod,  is  converted  into  a  chryfalis, 
and  afterwards  aflumes  the  form  of  a  butterfly.  This  laft 
transformation  breaks  all  the  bonds  of  their  former  aflb- 
eiation,  and  the  female  flies  depofit  their  eggs,  which, 
when  hatched,  produce  new  colonies,  who  exhibit  the 
fame  oeconomy  and  manners. 

There  are  feveral  fpecies  of  caterpillars  who  are  real 
republicans,  and  whofe  difcipiine,  manners,  and  genius, 
are  equally  diverfified  as  thofe  of  the  inhabitants  of  dif- 
ferent nations  and  climates.  Some,  like  particular  fava- 
ges,  conftruct  a  kind  of  hammocks,  in  which  they  take 
their  victuals,  repofe,  and  fpend  their  lives  till  the  period 
of  their  transformation.  Others,  like  the  Arabs  and  Tar- 
tars, conftruct  and  live  in  filken  tents,  and,  after  con- 
fuming  the  neighbouring  herbage,  they  leave  their  former 
habitations,  and  encamp  on  frefh  pafture.  Under  thefe 
tents  they  are  not  only  protected  from  the  injuries  of  the 
weather,  but  they  repofe  in  them  when  fick,  or  in  a  ftate 
of  inactivity.  They  go  out  of  their  tents  at  particular 
times  in  queft  of  food,  and  often  to  confiderable  diftan- 
ces ;  but  they  never  lofe  their  way  back.  It  is  not  by 
fight  that  they  are  directed  with  |Q  much  certainty  to  their 

abodes. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         385 

abodes.  Nature  has  furnifhed  them  with  another  guide 
for  regaining  their  habitations.  We  pave  our  ftreets  with 
flones ;  but  the  caterpillars  cover  all  their  roads  with 
filken  threads.  Thefe  threads  make  white  tracks,  which 
are  often  more  than  a  fixth  of  an  inch  wide.  It  is  by 
following  thefe  filken  tracks,  however  complicated,  that 
the  caterpillars  never  mifs  their  nefts.  If  the  road  is  broke 
by  a  man's  finger  drawn  along  it,  or  by  any  other  acci- 
dent, the  caterpillars  are  greatly  embarraffed.  They  Hop 
fuddenly  at  the  interrupted  fpace,  and  exhibit  every  mark 
of  fear  and  of  diffidence.  Here  the  march  flops,  till  an 
individual,  more  bold  or  more  impatient  than  his  compa- 
nions, traverfes  the  gap.  In  his  paffage,  he  leaves  behind 
him  a  thread  of  filk,  which  ferves  as  a  bridge  or  conduc- 
tor to  the  next  that  follows.  By  the  progreilion  of  num- 
bers, each  of  which  fpins  a  thread,  the  breach  is  foon 
repaired.  We  cannot  fuppofe  that  thefe  flupid  animals 
cover  their  roads  to  prevent  their  wandering.  But  they 
never  wander,  becaufe  their  roads  are  covered  with  filk, 
In  this,  as  well  as  in  many  other  inftances,  Nature  obli- 
ges animals  to  embrace  the  moil  effectual  means  of  felf- 
prefervation,  and  even  of  conveniency,  without  their 
perceiving  the  utility  of  their  own  operations.  The  ca- 
terpillars, whofe  manners  we  have  been  defcribing,  fpin 
almoit  continually,  becaufe  they  are  continually  obliged 
to  evacuate  a  filky  matter,  fecreted  from  their  food  by 
veffels  deflined  for  that  purpofe,  and  included  in  their 
interlines.  In  obeying  this  call  of  Nature,  they  effectu- 
ally fecure  their  retreat  to  their  nefts,  and  perhaps  thtir 
exiflence.  It  may  be  faid,  that  caterpillars  affociate  for 
no  other  reafon  but  becaufe  they  are  all  produced  at  the 
fame  time  from  eggs  depofited  near  each  other.  But 
many  other  fpecies  of  caterpillars,  who  are  brought  to 
life  in  the  very  fame  circumftances,  never  affociate  or  act 
in  concert  in  the  performance  of  any  mutual  labour.  The 
filk-worms  afford  a  familiar  example.  It  is  true,  they 
fpontaneoufly  remain  aflembled  in  the  fame  place,  which 
is  of  great  advantage  to  manufacture.  But  the  individu- 
als of  other  fpecies  difperfe  immediately  after  birth,  and 
never  re-unite.  Spiders,  when  newly  hatched,  begin  with 

C  c  c  fpinning 


T  HE     PHILOSOPHY 

ipinning  a  web  in  common  ;  but  they  foon  terminate  this 
aiibciation  by  devouring  one  another. 

As  caterpillars  do  not  engender  till  they  arrive  at  the 
butterfly  Hate,  their  affociations  have  no  refpect  to  the 
rearing  or  education  of  young.  Self-prefervation  and  in- 
dividual conveniency  are  the  only  bonds  of  their  union. 
A  perfect  equality  reigns  among  them,  without  any  dif- 
tinclion  of  fex,  or  even  of  iize.  Each  takes  his  mare  of 
the  common  labour ;  and  the  whole  ibciety,  which  con- 
ftitutes  but  one  family,  is  the  genuine  iffue  of  the  fame 
mother. 

The  aflbciation  and  (Economy  of  the  common  ants 
merit  fome  attention.  With  wonderful  induftry  and  ac- 
tivity they  collect  materials  for  the  conftruction  of  their 
neii.  They  unite  in  numbers,  and.  ailiit  each  other  in 
excavating  the  earth,  and  in  tranfporting  to  their  habi- 
tation bits  of  draw,  fmall  pieces  of  wood,  and  other  fub- 
ftances  of  a  fimilar  kind,  which  they  employ  in  lining 
and  fupporting  their  fubterraneous  galleries.  The  form 
of  their  neft  or  hill  is  ibmewhat  conical,  and,  of  courfe, 
the  water,  when  it  rains,  runs  eafily  off,  without  pene- 
trating their  abode.  Under  this  hill  there  are  many  gal- 
leries or  paffages  which  communicate  with  each  other, 
and  refemble  the  ftrectii  of  a  fmall  city. 

The  ants  not  only  ailociate  for  the  purpofs  of  conflrucl- 
ing  a  common  habitation,  but  for  cherifhing  and  protecting- 
their  offspring.  Every  perfon  muft  have  often  obferved,. 
when  part  of  a  neft  is  fuddenly  expofed,  their  extreme  fo- 
licitude  for  the  preiervation  of  their  chryfalids  or  nymphs, 
which  often  exceed  the  fize  of  the  animals  themf  elves.  With 
amazing  dexterity  and  quicknefs  the  ants  tranfport  their 
nymphs  into  the  fubterraneous  galleries  of  the  neft,  and 
place  them  beyond  the  reach  of  any  common  danger. 
The  courage  and  fortitude  with  which  they  defend  their 
young  is  no  lefs  altonifhing.  The  body  of  an  ant  was 
cut  through  the  middle,  and,  after  fuffering  this  cruel 
treatment,  fo  ftrong  was  its  parental  afteclion,  with  its 
head,  and  one  half  of  the  body,  it  carried  off  eight  or 
ten  nymphs.  Th<%  go  to  great  distances  in  fearch  of 

provifions. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY,         3*7 

provifions.  Their  roads,  which  are  often  winding  and 
involved,  all  terminate  in  the  neft. 

The  wifdom  and  forefight  of  the  ants  have  been  cele- 
brated from  the  remoteft  antiquity.  It  has  been  aiferted 
and  believed,  for  near  three  thouland  years,  that  they  lay 
up  magazines  of  provifions  for  the  winter,  and  that  they 
even  cut  off  the  germ  of  the  grain  to  prevent  it  from 
mooting.  But  the  ancients  were  never  famed  for  accu- 
rate researches  into  the  nature  and  operations  of  infects. 
Thefe  fuppofed  magazines  could  be  of  no  ufe  to  the  ants  ; 
for,  like  the  marmots  and  dormice,  they  ileep  during  the 
winter.  A  very  moderate  degree  of  cold  is  fufficient  to 
render  them  torpid.  In  fad,  it  is  now  well  known  that 
they  amafs  no  magazines  of  provifions.  The  grains  which, 
with  fo  much  induftry  and  labour,  they  carry  to  their 
neft,  are  not  intended  to  be  food  to  the  animals,  but, 
like  the  bits  of  ftraw  and  wood,  are  employed  as  mate- 
rials 'in  the  conflruction  of  their  habitation. 

2.  Improper  Societies. — Many  animals  are  gregarious, 
though  they  unite  not  with  a  view  to  any  joint  operation, 
fuch  as  conflructing  common  habitations,  or  mutually 
and  indifcrimmately  nourifhing  and  protecting  the  off- 
fpring  produced  by  the  whole  fociety.  But,  even  among 
animals  of  this  defcriptidn,  there  are  motives  or  bonds 
of  afTociation,  and,  in  many  inftances,  they  mutually  af- 
iift  and  defend  each  other  from  hoftile  aflaults. 

The  ox  is  a  gregarious  animal.  When  a  herd  of  oxen 
are  pafturing  in  a  meadow,  if  a  wolf  makes  his  appear- 
ance, they  inftantly  form  themfelves  in  battle  array,  and 
prefent  their  united  horns  to  the  enemy.  This  warlike 
difpofition  often  intimidates  the  wolf,  and  obliges  him  to 
retire. 

In  winter,  the  hinds  and  young  flags  affbciate,  and 
form  herds,  which  are  always  more  numerous  in  propor- 
tion to  the  feverity  of  the  weather.  One  bond  of  their  fo- 
ciety feems  to  be  the  advantage  of  mutual  warmth  deriv- 
ed from  each  other's  bodies.  In  fpring  they  difperfe, 
and  the  hinds  conceal  themfelves  in  the  forefts,  where 
they  bring  forth  their  young.  The  young  flags,  however, 

continue 


388  THE     P  H  I  L  O  S  O  P  H  Y 

continue  together  ;  they  love  to  browfe  in  company  ;  and 
neceffity  alone  forces  them  to  feparate. 

The  Count  de  Buffon  reprefents  fheep  as  ftupid  crea- 
tures, which  are  incapable  of  defending  themfelves  againft 
the  attacks  of  any  rapacious  animal.  He  maintains  that 
the  race  muil  long  ago  have  been  extinguiihed,  if  man 
had  not  taken  them  under  his  immediate  protection.  But 
Nature  has  furnimed  every  fpecies  of  animated  beings 
with  weapons  and  arts  of  defence  which  are  fufficient  for 
individual  prefervation  as  well  as  the  continuation  of  the 
kind.  Sheep  are  endowed  with  a  ftrong  aflbciating  prin- 
ciple. When  threatened  with  an  attack,  like  foldiers, 
they  form  a  line  of  battle,  and  boldly  face  the  enemy. 
In  a  natural  (late,  the  rams  conftitute  one  half  of  the 
iiock.  They  join  together  and  form  the  front.  When 
prepared  in  this  manner  for  repelling  an  aflault,  no  lion 
or  tiger  can  refifl  their  united  impetuofity  and  force. 

A  family  of  hogs,  when  in  a  (fate  of  natural  liberty, 
never  feparate  till  the  young  have  acquired  ftrength  fuf- 
ficient to  repel  the  wolf.  When  a  wolf  threatens  an 
attack,  the  whole  family  unite  their  forces,  and  bravely 
defend  each  other. 

The  wild  dogs  of  Africa  hunt  in  packs,  and  carry  on 
a  perpetual  war  againft  other  rapacious  animals.  The 
jackals  of  Afia  and  Africa  likewife  hunt  in  packs.  But, 
though  animals  of  this  kind  mutually  affift  each  other  in 
killing  prey,  individual  advantage  is  the  chief,  if  not 
the  only,  bond  of  this  temporary  union. 

Another  kind  of  fociety  is  obfervable  among  domeftic 
animals.  Horfes  and  oxen,  when  deprived  of  compani- 
ons of  their  own  fpecies,  arTbciate,  and  difcover  a  vifible 
attachment.  A  dog  and  an  ox,  or  a  dog  and  a  cow,  when 
placed  in  certain  circumftances,  though  the  fpecies  are 
remote,  and  even  hoflile,  acquire  a  ftrong  affeclion  for 
each  other.  The  fame  kind  of  afibciation  takes  place 
between  dogs  and  cats,  between  cats  and  birds,  &c.  If 
domeftic  animals  had  a  ftrong  averfion  to  one  another, 
man  could  not  derive  fo  many  advantages  from  them. 
Horfes,  o^en,  fheep,  &c.  by  browfmg  promifcuoufly  to- 
gether, augment  and  meliorate  the  common  pafture.  By 

living 


OF  NATURAL    HISTORY.          389 

living  under  the  fame  roof,  and  feeding  in  common,  this 
aifociating  principle  is  ftrengthened  and  modified  by  ha- 
bit, which  often  commences  immediately  after  birth.  A 
ilngle  horfe  confined  in  an  enclofure,  difcovers  every 
mark  of  uneafmefs.  He  becomes  reftlefs,  neglects  his 
food,  and  breaks  through  every  fence  in  order  to  join  his 
companions  in  a  neighbouring  field.  Oxen  and  cows  will 
not  fatten  in  the  fined  pafture,  if  they  are  deprived  of 
fociety. 

From  the  facts  and  remarks  contained  in  this  chapter, 
it  feems  to  be  evident,  that  the  principle  of  afibciation 
in  man,  as  well  as  in  many  other  animals,  is  purely  in- 
ftinctive  ;  and  that  this  principle  may  be  ftrengthened 
and  modified  by  the  numberlefs  advantages  derived  from 
it,  by  imitation,  by  habit,  and  by  many  other  circum- 
ftances. 


CHAPTER      XVII. 

Of  the  Docility  of  Animals. 


OF  all  animals  capable  of  culture,  man  is  the  moft 
ductile.  By  inftruction,  imitation,  and  habit,  his 
mind  may  be  moulded  into  any  form.  It  may  be  exalted 
by  fcience  and  art  to  a  degree  of  knowledge,  of  which 
the  vulgar  and  uninformed  have  not  the  moft  diftant 
conception.  The  reverfe  is  melancholy.  When  the  hu- 
man mind  is  left  to  its  own  operations,  and  deprived  of 
almoft  every  opportunity  of  focial  information,  it  finks 
ib  low,  that  it  is  nearly  rivalled  by  the  moft  lagacious 
brutes.  The  natural  fuperiority  of  man  over  the  other 
animals,  as  formerly  remarked,  is  a  neceflary  refult  of 
the  great  number  of  inftincts  with  which  his  mind  is  en- 
dowed. Thefe  inftincts  are  gradually  unfolded,  and  pro- 
duce, after  a  mature  age,  reafon,  abstraction,  invention, 

fcience. 


390  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

fcience.  To  confirm  this  truth,  it  would  rbe  fruitlefs  to 
iiave  recourfe  to  metaphyfical  arguments,  which  gene- 
rally miflead  and  bewilder  human  reafon.  A  diligent 
attention  to  the  actual  operations  of  Nature  is  fufficient 
to  convince  any  mind  that  is  not  warped  and  deceived  by 
popular  prejudice,  the  fetters  of  authorities,  as  they  are 
called,  whether  ancient  or  modern,  or  by  the  vanity  of 
fupporting  preconceived  opinions  and  favourite  theories. 
Let  any  man  reflect  on  the  progrefs  of  children  from 
birth  to  manhood.  At  firft,  their  inftincts  are  limited 
to  obfcure  fenfations,  and  to  the  performance  of  a  few 
corporeal  actions,  to  which  they  are  prompted,  or  rather 
compelled,  by  certain  ftinlulated  impulfes  unnecerTary  to 
be  mentioned.  In  a  few  months,  their  fenfations  are  per- 
ceived to  be  more  diftinct,  their  bodily  actions  are  better 
directed,  new  inftincts  are  unfolded,  and  they  affume  a 
greater  appearance  of  rationality  and  of  mental  capacity. 
When  ftill  farther  advanced,  and  after  they  have  acquired 
fome  ufe  of  language,  and  fome  knowledge  of  natural  ob- 
jefts,  they  begin  to  reafon  ;  but  their  reafonings  are  fee- 
ble, and  often  preposterous.  In  this  manner  they  uni- 
formly proceed  in  improvement  till  they  are  actuated  by 
the  laft  inftinct,  at  or  near  the  age  of  puberty.  Alter 
this  period,  they,  reafon  with  fome  degree  of  perfpicuity 
and  juftnefs.  But,  though  their  whole  inftincts  are  now 
unfolded  and  in  action,  every  power  of  their  minds  re-, 
quires,  previous  to  its  utmofl  exertions,  to  be  agitated  and 
polifhed  by  an  examination  of  a  thoufand  natural  and  arti- 
ficial objects,  by  the  experience  and  obfervations  of  thofe 
with  whom  they  affociate,  by  public  or  private  inftruction, 
by  ftudying  the  writings  of  their  predecelfors  and  cotem- 
poraries",  and  by  their  own  reflections,  till  they  arrive  at 
the  age  of  thirty-five.  Previous  to  that  period,  much 
learning  may  have  been  acquired,  much  genius  may  have 
been  exerted ;  but,  before  that  time  of  life,  judgment, 
abftradion,  and  the  reafoning  faculty,  are  not  fully  ma- 
tured. This  progrefs  is  the  genuine  operation  of  Nature, 
and  the  gradual  fource  of  human  fagacity,  and  mental 
powers.  The  fame  progrefs  is  to  be  obferved  in  the 
powers  of  the  body.  It  arrives,  indeed,  fooner  at  per- 
fection 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.        391 

fection  than  the  mind.  But,  if  the  progrefs  of  the  mind 
greatly  preceded  that  of  the  body,  what  a  miferable  and 
uukward  figure  would  human  beings,  at  an  early  period 
of  their  exiftence,  exhibit?  Active  and  vigorous  minds, 
(limulated  to  command  what  the  organs  of  their  bodies 
were  unable  to  obey,  would  produce  peevimnefsj  anger, 
regret,  and  every  diflr  effing  paffion. 

The  bodies  of  men,  though  not  fo  ductile  as  their  minds, 
are  capable,  when  properly  managed  by  early  culture,  of 
wonderful  exertions.  Men,  accuftomed  to  live  in  polifh- 
ed  focieties,  have  little  or  no  idea  of  the  activity,  the 
courage,  the  patience,  and  the  perfevering  induftry,  of 
favages,  when  fimply  occupied  in  hunting  wild  animals 
for  food  to  themfelves  and  their  families.  The  hunger, 
the  fatigue,  the  hardfhips,  which  they  not  only  endure, 
but  defpife,  with  fortitude,  would  amaze  and  terrify  the 
Imagination  of  any  civilized  European. 

Befide  man,  many  other  animals  are  capable  of  being 
intruded.  The  ape-kind,  and  efpecially^the  larger  fpe- 
cies  of  them,  imitate  the  actions  of  men  without  any  in- 
ftruction.  This  imitation  they  are  enabled  to  perform, 
with  the  greater  exactnefs,  on  account  of  their  flructure. 
The  orangoutang,  a  native  of  the  fouthern  regions  of 
Africa  and  India,  is  as  tall  and  as  ftrong  as  a  man.  He 
has  no  tail.  His  face  is  flat.  His  arms,  hands,  toes,  and 
nails,  are  perfectly  fimilar  to  ours.  He  walks  conftantly 
on  end ;  arid  the  features  of  his  vifage  make  a  near  ap* 
proach  to  thofe  of  the  human  countenance.  He  has  a 
beard  on  his  chin,  and  no  more  hair  on  his  body  than 
men  have  when  in  a  flate  of  nature.  He  knows  how  ta 
bear  arms,  to  attack  his  enemies  with  {tones,  and  to  de- 
fend himfelf  with  a  club.  Of  all  the  apes,  the  orang- 
outang, or  wild  man,  as  he  is  called  by  the  Indians,  has 
the  greater!  refemblance  to  man,  both  in  the  ftruclure  o£ 
his  body  and  in  his  manners.  There  are  two  fuppofed  fpe- 
cies  of  orang-outang,  a  larger  and  a  fmaller.  The  latter  has 
been  ieveral  times  brought  to  Europe,  and  accurate  de- 
fcriptions  have  been  given  both  of  his  external  and  inter- 
nal parts.  But,  with  regard  to  the  larger  kind,  who  is, 
faid  to  exceed  the  ordinary  itature  of  man,  we*jtiave  no- 
thing. 


392  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

thing  to  rely  on  but  the  relations  of  travellers.  Bontius, 
who  was  chief  phyfician  in  Batavia,  affirms  exprefsly,  that 
he  law,  with  admiration,  feveral  individuals  of  this  fpecies 
walking  on  their  two  feet.  Among  others,  he  remarked 
a  female,  who  feemed  to  have  a  fenfe  of  modefty,  who 
covered  her  face  with  her  hands  when  men  approached 
her  with  whom  me  was  unacquainted,  who  wept,  groan- 
ed, and  feemed  to  want  nothing  of  humanity  but  the  fa- 
culty of  fpeech  *.  Many  other  furprifmg  aclions  per- 
formed by  this  animal  are  recorded  by  different  voyagers, 
which  it  is  unneceflary  to  repeat,  efpecially  as  we  have  a 
fufficient  number  of  fads  attefted  by  unequivocal  evi- 
dence. The  Count  de  Buffon,  with  much  probability, 
confiders  what  are  called  the  large  and  fmall  orang-outangs 
to  be  the  fame  fpecies  of  animals ;  for  thofe  hitherto 
brought  to  Europe  were  very  young,  and  had  not  acquir- 
ed one  half  of  their  ftature. 

4  The  orang-outang,'  fays  Buffon,  *  which  I  faw,  walk- 
ed always  on  two  feet,  even  when  carrying  things  of 
confiderable  weight.    His  air  was  melancholy,  his  move- 
ments meamreci,  his  difpofitioris  gentle,  and  very  diffe- 
rent from  thofe  of  other  apes.     He  had  neither  the  im- 
patience of  the  Barbary  ape,  the  malicioufnefs  of  the 
4  baboon,  nor  the  extravagance  of  the  monkeys.     It  may 
6  be  -cUiedged  that  he  had  the  benefit  of  inilruction  ;  but 
6  the  apes,  which  I  mail  compare  with  him,  were  educated 
*  in  the  fame  manner.     Signs  and  words  were  alone  fuffi- 
4  cient  to  make  our  orang-outang  aft :  But   the  baboon 
c  required  a  cudgel,  and  the  other  apes  a  whip  ;  for  none 
4  of  them  would  obey  without  blows.     I  have  feen  this 
c  animal  prefent  his  hand  to  conducl  the  people  who  came 
4  to  vifit  him,  and  walk  as  gravely  along  as  if  he  had 
4  formed  a  part  of  the  company.     I  have  feen  him  fit 
6  down  at  table,  unfold  his  towel,  wipe  his   lips,   ufe  a 
6  fpoon  or  a  fork  to  carry  the  victuals  to  his  mouth,  pour 
4  his  liquor  into  a  glafs,  and  make  it  touch   that  of  the 
4  perfon  who  drank  along  with  him.     When  invited  to 
4  drink  tea,  he  brought  a  cup  and  a  faucer,  placed  them 
4  on  the  table,  put  in  fugar,  poured  out  the  tea,  and  al- 

4  lowed 

*  Jac.  Bont.  Hift.  Nat.  Ind.  cap.  32.     S. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          393 

4  lowed  it  to  cool  before  he  drank  it.  All  thefe  a&ions  he 
c  performed  without  any  other  inftigation  than  the  figns 
c  or  verbal  orders  of  his  m after,  and  often  of  his  own  ac- 
6  cord.  He  did  no  injury  to  any  perfon.  He  even  ap- 

*  preached  company  with  circumfpe&ion,  and  prefented 
6  himfelf  as  if  he  wanted  to  be  carefled.     He  was  very 
c  fond  of  dainties^  which  every  body  gave  him :  And,  as 
e  his  bread  was  dileafed,  and  he  was  affli&ed  with  a  teaz- 
c  ing  cough,  this  quantity  of  fweat meats  undoubtedly  con- 
4  tributed  to   ihorten  his  life.     He  lived  one  fummer  in 
c  Paris,  and  died  in  London  the  following  winter.     He 

*  eat  almoft  every  thing  ;  but  preferred  ripe  and  dried 

*  fruits  to  all  other  kinds   of  food.     He  drank  a  little 

*  wine  ;  but  fpontaneoufly  left  it  for  milk,  tea,  or  other 
6  mild  liquors  V 

M.  de  la  Brofle  purchafed  two  orang-outangs  from  a 
Negro,  whofe  age  exceeded  not  twelve  months.  '  Thefe 
c  animals,'  he  remarks,  c  have  the  inftincl  of  fitting  at 
'  table  like  men.  They  eat  every  kind  of  food  without 
6  diftinclion.  They  ufe  a  knife,  a  fork,  or  a  fpoon,  to  cut 
c  or  lay  hold  of  what  is  put  upon  their  plate.  They  drink 
'  wine  and  other  liquors.  We  carried  them  aboard.  At 
'  table,  when  they  wanted  any  thing,  they  made  them- 
c  felves  be  underftood  by  the  cabin-boy  :  And,  when  the 
c  boy  refufed  to  give  them  what  they  demanded,  they 
c  fometimes  became  enraged,  feized  him  by  the  arm,  bit, 
4  and  threw  him  down. — The  male  was  feized  with  fick- 

*  nefs  in  the  road,     He  made  himfelf  be  attended  as  a 
'  human  being.     He  was  even  twice  bled  in  the  right 
'  arm  :  And,  whenever  he  found  himfelf  afterwards  in 
e  the  fame  condition,  he  held  out  his  arm  to  be  bled,  as 
'  if  he  knew  that  he  had  formerly  received  benefit  from 
c  that  operation.' 

We  are  informed  by  Francis  Pyrard,  c  that,  in  the  pro- 
c  vince  of  Sierra-Leona,  there  is  a  fpecies  of  animals  cal- 

*  led  baris  (the  orang-outang),  who  are  ftrong  and,1  well 

*  limbed,  and  fo  induftrious,  that,  when  properly  trained 
6  and  fed,  they  work  like  iervants  ;  that  they  generally 
'  walk  on  the  two  hind-feet  ;  that  they  pound  any  fub- 

Ddd  « fiances 

*  Bisffon,  vol.  8.  page  86.  Trafifl.     S,    ' 


394  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

c  (lances  in  a  mortar  ;  that  they  go  to  bring  water  from 
c  the  river  in  fmall  pitchers,  which  they  carry  full  on  their 
6  heads.  But,  when  they  arrive  at  the  door,  if  the  pitch- 
6  ers  are  not  foon  taken  off,  they  allow  them  to  fall ;  and, 
4  when  they  perceive  the  pitcher  overturned  and  broken, 

*  they  weep  and  lament  *.'     With  regard  to  the  educa- 
tion of  thefe  animals,  the  teftimony  of  Schoutton  cor- 
refponds  with  that   of  Pyrard.     '  They  are  taken,'  fays 
he,  '  with  (Hares,  taught  to  walk  on  their  hind-feet,  and 
6  to  life  their  fore-feet  as  hands  in  performing  different 

*  operations,  as  rinfing  glafles,  carrying  drink  round  the 
c  company,  turning  a  fpit,*  &c.f .     Guat  informs  us,  that 
he  '  faw  at  Java  a  very  extraordinary  ape.     It  was  a  fe- 
6  male.     She  was  very  tall,  and  often  walked  ereft  on  her 

*  hind-feet.     On  thefe  occafions,  me  concealed  with  her 
<  hands  the  parts  which  diftinguifh  the  fex. — She  made 
4  her  bed  very  neatly  every  day,  lay  upon  her  fide,  and 
c  cdvered  herfelf  with  the  bed-clothes. — When  her  head 
c  ached,   me  bound  it  up  with  her  handkerchief;  and  it 
6  was  amufing  to  fee  her  thus  hooded  in  bed.     I  could  re- 
c  late  many  other  little  articles  which  appeared  to  be  ex- 
'  tremely  fmgular.     But  I  admired  them  not  fo  much  as 
c  the  multitude ;  becaufe,  as  I  knew  the  defign  of  bring- 
e  ing  her  to  Europe  to  be  exhibited  as  a  ihew,  I  was  in- 

*  clined  to  think  that  Aie  had  been  taught  many  of  thefe 

*  monkey  tricks,  which   the  people  confidered  as  being 
c  natural  to  the  animal.     She  died  in  our  fhip,  about  the 
c  latitude  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.     The  figure  of  this 
'  ape  had  a  very  great  refemblance  to  that  of  man  J.' 

We  have  now  enumerated  the  principal  facls  regarding 
this  extraordinary  animal,  which  have  been  related  by 
voyagers  of  credit,  and  by  thofe  who  have  feen  and  ex- 
amined him  in  Europe  ;  and  (hall  only  remark,  that,  not- 
withftanding  the  great  fimilarity  of  his  ftructure  and  or- 
gans to  thofe  of  the  human  fpecies,  his  genius  and  talents 
feem  to  be  very  limited.  The  form  of  his  body  enables 
him  to  imitate  every  human  action.  But,  though  he  has 

the 

*  Voyages  de  Francois  Pyrard,  torn  2.  page  331.     S. 
'    t  Voyages  de  Schoutton,  aux  Indes  Orientales.     S. 

J  Voyages  de  Fran,  ie  Guat,  loin.  2.  page  96.     S.  , 


OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.         395 

the  organs  of  fpeech,  he  is  deftitute  of  articulate  language. 
If,  however,  he  were  domeflicated,  and  proper  pains  be- 
(lowed  for  inftru&ing  him,  he  might  unqueftionably  be 
taught  to  articulate.  But,  fuppofing  this  point  to  be  ob- 
tained, if  he  remained  incapable  of  reflection,  if  he  was 
unable  to  comprehend  the  meaning  of  words,  or  to  dif- 
cover  by  his  expreflions  a  degree  of  intellect  greatly  fu- 
perior  to  that  of  the  brute  creation,  which  I  imagine 
would  be  the  cafe,  he  could  never,  as  fome  authors  have 
held  forth,  be  exalted  to  the  diftinguimed  rank  of  human 
beings. 

Of  all  quadrupeds,  of  whofe  hiftory  and  manners  we 
have  any  proper  knowledge,  the  elephant  is  mod  remark- 
able both  for  docility  and  underftanding.  Though  his 
fize  is  enormous,  and  his  members  rude  and  difpropor- 
tioned,  which  give  him,  at  firft  fight,  the  afpect  of  dul- 
nefs  and  ftupidity,  his  genius  is  great,  and  his  fagacious 
manners,  and  his  fedate  and  collected  deportment,  are 
almoft  incredible.  He  is  the  largeft  and  ftrongeft  of  all 
terreflrial  animals.  Though  naturally  brave,  his  difpo- 
fitions  are  mild  and  peaceable.  He  is  an  afibciating  ani- 
mal, and  feldom  appears  alone  in  the  forefts.  When  in 
danger,  or  when  they  undertake  a  depredatory  expedition 
into  cultivated  fields,  the  elephants  affemble  in  troops. 
The  oldeft  takes  the  lead;  the  next  in  feniority  brings  up 
the  rear4;  and  the  young  and  the  feeble  occupy  the  center. 
In  the  forefts  and  folitudes  they  move  with  lefs  precaution; 
but  never  feparate  fo  far  afunder  as  to  render  them  inca- 
pable of  affording  each  other  mutual  affiftance  when  danr 
ger  approaches.  A  troop  of  elephants  conftitutes  a  moft 
formidable  band.  Wherever  they  march,  the  foreft  feems 
to  fall  before  them.  They  bear  down  the  branches  upon 
which  they  feed ;  and,  if  they  enter  an  inclofure,  they 
foon  deflroy  all  the  labours  of  the  hufbandman.  Their 
invafions  are  the  more  tremendous,  -as  there  is  hardly  any 
means  of  repelling  them;  for,  to  attack  a  troop,  when 
thus  united,  would  require  a  little  army.  It  is  only  when 
one  or  two  elephants  happen  to  linger  behind  the  reft, 
that  the  hunters  dare  exert  their  art  and  ingenuity  in 
making  an  attack  5  for  any  attempt  to  difturb  the  troop 

would 


396  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

would  certainly  prove  fatal  to  the  affailants.  When  an 
infult  is  offered,  the  elephants  inflantly  move  forward 
againft  the  offender,  tofs  him  in  the  air  with  their  tufks^ 
and  afterwards  trample  him  to  pieces  under  their  feet,  or 
rather  pillars  of  flefn  and  bone.  Let  not  the  character 
of  this  noble  and  majeftic  animal,  however,  be  mifrepre- 
fented.  With  force  arid  dignity  he  refents  every  affront ; 
but,  when  not  diflurbed  by  petulance  or  a&ual  injury, 
he  never  fliows  an  hoftile  intention  either  againfl  man  or 
any  other  animal.  Elephants  live  entirely  on  vegetables, 
and  have  no  third  for  blood.  Such  is  their  focial  and 
generous  difpofition,  that,  when  an  individual  chances 
to  meet  with  a  luxurious  fpot  of  paflure,  he  immediately 
calls  to  his  companions,  and  invites  them  to  partake  of 
his  good  fortune. 

The  elephant  poffefifes  all  the  fenfes  in  perfection  :  But, 
in  the  fenfe  of  touching,  he  excels  all  the  brute  creation. 
His  trunk  is  the  chief  inftrument  of  this  fenfe.  In  an 
elephant  of  fourteen  feet  high,  the  trunk  is  about  eight 
feet  long,  and  five  feet  and  an  half  in  circumference  at 
the  bafe.  It  is  a  large  fiefhy  tube,  divided  through  its 
whole  extent  by  a  feptum  or  partition.  It  is  capable  of 
motion  in  every  direction.  The  animal  can  fhorten  or 
lengthen  it  at  pleafure.  It  anfwers  every  purpofe  of  a 
hand ;  for  it  grafps  large  objects  with  great  force,  and  its 
extremity  can  lay  hold  of  a  fixpence,  or  even  of  a  pin. 
The  trunk  of  the  elephant  affords  him  the  fame  means  of 
addrefs  as  the  ape.  It  ferves  the  purpofes  of  an  arm  and 
a  hand.  By  this  inftrument,  the  elephant  conveys  large 
or  fmall  bodies  to  his  mouth,  places  them  on  his  back, 
embraces  them  faft,  or  throws  them  forcibly  to  a  diftance. 
In  a  ftate  of  nature  and  perfect  freedom,  the  difpofitions 
of  the  elephant  are  neither  fanguinary  nor  ferocious. 
They  are  gentle  creatures,  and  never  exert  their  flrength, 
or  employ  their  weapons,  but  in  defending  themfelves  or 
protecting  their  companions.  Even  when  deprived  of 
the  inftruction  of  men,  they  poflefs  the  fagacity  of  the 
beaver,  the  addrefs rof  the  ape,  anjl  the  acutenefs  of  the 
dog.  To  thefe  mental  talents  are  added  the  advantages 
of  amazing  bodily  flrength,  and  the  experience  and  know- 
ledge. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.        397 

ledge  he  acquires  by  living  at  leaft  two  centuries.  With 
his  trunk  he  tears  up  trees.  By  a  pufh  of  his  body  he 
makes  a  breach  in  a  wall.  To  this  prodigious  ftrength 
he  adds  courage,  prudence,  and  coolnefs  of  deportment. 
As  he  never  makes  an  attack  but  when  he  receives  an  in- 
jury, he  is  univerfally  beloved  ;  and  all  animals  refpecl, 
becaufe  none  have  any  reafon  to  fear  him.  In  all  ages, 
men  have  entertained  a  veneration  for  this  moft  magnifi* 
cent  and  fagacious  of  terreftrial  creatures.  The  ancients 
regarded  him  as  a  miracle  of  Nature,  and  he  is,  in  reality, 
one  of  her  greateft  efforts.  But  they  have  greatly  exagge- 
rated his  faculties.  Without  hefitation,  they  have  afcrib- 
ed  to  him  high  intellectual  powers  and  moral  virtues. 
Pliny,  JElian,  Plutarch,  and  other  authors  of  a  more 
modern  date,  have  beftowed  on  the  elephant  not  only  ra- 
tional manners,  but  an  innate  religion,  a  kind  of  daily 
adoration  of  the  fun  and  moon,  the  ufe  of  ablution  be- 
fore worfhip,  a  fpirit  of  divination,  piety  toward  heaven 
and  their  fellow-creatures,  whom  they  affiit  at  the  approach 
of  death,  and,  after  their  deceafe,  bedew  them  with  tears, 
and  cover  their  bodies  with  earth. 

When  tamed  and  inftructed  by  man,  the  elephant  is 
foon  rendered  the  mildeft  and  mod  obedient  of  all  do- 
meftic  animals.  He  loves  his  keeper,  carefles  him,  and 
anticipates  his  commands.  He  learns  to  comprehend 
iigns,  and  even  to  underfland  the  expreffion  of  founds. 
He  diftinguifhes  the  tones  of  command,  of  anger,  and 
of  approbation,  arid  regulates  his  actions  by  his  percep- 
tions. The  voice  of  his  mailer  he  never  miftakes.  His 
orders  are  executed  with  alacrity,  but  without  any  degree 
of  precipitation.  His  movements  are  always  meafured 
and  fedate,  and  his  character  feems  to  correfpond  with 
the  gravity  of  his  mafs.  To  accommodate  thofe  who 
mount  him,  he  readily  learns  to  bend  his  knees.  With 
his  trunk  he  falutes  his  friends,  ufes  it  for  raifmg  burdens, 
and  aflifts  in  loading  himfelf.  He  loves  to  be  clothed, 
and  feems  to  be  proud  of  gaudy  trappings.  In  the  fouth- 
ern  regions,  he  is  employed  in  drawing  waggons,  ploughs, 
and  chariots.  c  I  was  eye-witnefs,5  fays  P.  Philippe,  '  to 
*  the  following  fafts,  At  Goa,  thsre  are  always  fome  ele- 

«  phantt 


S98  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

4  phants  employed  in  the  building  of  Ihips.     I  one  day 

*  went  to  the  fide  of  the  river,  near  which  a  large  (hip 

*  was  building  in  the  city  of  Goa,  where  there  is  a  large 
4  area  filled  with  beams  for  that  purpofe.     Some  men  tie 

*  the  ends  of  the  heaviefl  beams  with  a  rope,  which   is 

*  handed  to  the  elephant,  who  carries  it  to  his  mouth, 
4  and,  after  twilling  it  round  his  trunk,  draws  it,  with- 
4  out  any  conductor,  to  the  place  where  the  fhip  is  build- 
4  ing,  though  it  had  only  once  been  pointed  out  to  him. 

*  He  fometimes  drew  beams  fo  large  that  more  than  twenty 

*  men  would  have  been  unable  to  move.     But,  what  fur- 

*  prifed  me  flill  more,  when  other  beams  obitru&ed  the 

*  road,  he  elevated  the  ends  of  his  own  beams,  that  they 

*  might  run  eafily  over  thofe  which  lay  in  his  way.    Could 
'  the  moft  enlightened  man  do  more*?'  When  at  work, 
the  elephant  draws  equally,  and,  if  properly  managed, 
never  turns  reftive.     The  man  who  conducts  the  animal 
generally  rides  on  his  neck,  and  employs  a  hooked  iron 
rod,  or  a  bodkin,  with  which  he  pricks  the  head  or  fides 
of  the  ears,  in  order  to  pufh  the  creature  forward,  or  to 
make  him  turn.     But  words   are  commonly  fufficient. 
The  attachment  and  affection  of  the  elephant  are  fome- 
times fo  ftrong  and  durable  that  he  has  been  known  to 
die  of  grief,  when,  in  an  unguarded  paroxyfm  of  rage, 
he  had  killed  his  guide. 

Before  the  invention  of  gun-ppwder,  elephants  were 
employed  in  war  by  the  African  and  Afiatic  nations. 
4  From  time  immemorial,'  fays  Schouten,  '  the  Kings  of 
6  Ceylon,  of  Pegu,  and  of  Aracan,  have  ufed  elephants 
c  in  war.  Naked  fabres  were  tied  to  their  trunks,  and 

*  on  their  backs  were  fixed  fmail  wooden  caflles,  which 
'  contained  five 'or  fix  men  armed  with  javelins,  and  other 
4  weapons  f .'     The  Greeks  and  Romans,  however,  foon 
became  acquainted  with  the  nature  of  thefe  monftrous 
warriors.    They  opened  their  ranks  to  let  the  animals  pafs, 
and  dire&ed  all  their  weapons,  not  againft  the  elephants, 
but  their  conductors.     Since  fire  has  now  become  the  ele- 
ment of  war,  and  the  chief  inftrument  of  deflruclion, 
elephants,  who  are  terrified  both  at  the  flame  and  noife, 

would 

*  Voyage  d'Orient.  pag.  367.     S.'  t  Voyage  de  Schowten,  pag.  32.    S, 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.        399 

would  be  more  dangerous  than  ufeful  in  our  modern  bat- 
tles. The  Indian  Kings,  however,  ftill  arm  elephants  in 
their  wars.  In  Cochin,  and  other  parts  of  Malabar,  all 
the  warriors  who  fight  not  on  foot  are  mounted  on  ele- 
phants *.  The  fame  practice  obtains  in  Tonquin,  Siam, 
and  Pegu.  In  thefe  countries,  the  kings  and  nobles  at 
public  feftivals  are  always  preceded  and  followed  by  nu- 
merous trains  of  elephants,  pompoufly  adorned  with  pieces 
of  filming  metal,  and  clothed  with  rich  garments.  Their 
tufks  are  ornamented  with  rings  of  gold  and  filver  ;  their 
ears  and  cheeks  are  painted  with  various  colours ;  they 
are  crowned  with  garlands ;  and  a  number  of  fmall  bells 
are  fixed  to  different  parts  of  their  bodies.  They  delight 
in  gaudy  attire ;  for  they  are  chearful  and  careffing  in 
proportion  to  the  number  and  fplendour  of  their  orna- 
ments. The  Afiatics,  who  were  very  anciently  civilized, 
perceiving  the  fagacity  and  docility  of  the  elephant,  edu- 
cated him  in  a  fyftematic  manner,  and  modified  his  dif- 
pofitions  according  to  their  own  manners,  and  the  ufeful 
labours  in  which  his  ftrength  and  dexterity  could  be  em- 
ployed. 

A  domeftic  elephant  performs  more  labour  than  could 
be  accomplifhed  by  fix  horfes ;  but  he  requires  much 
care  and  a  great  deal  of  food.  He  is  fubject  to  be  over- 
heated, and  mufl  be  led  to  the  water  twice  or  thrice  a-day. 
He  eafily  learns  to  bathe  himfelf.  With  his  trunk  he 
fucks  up  large  quantities  of  water,  carries  it  to  his  mouth, 
drinks  part  of  it,  and,  by  elevating  his  trunk,  makes  the 
remainder  run  over  every  part  of  his  body*  To  give  fome 
idea  of  the  labour  he  performs,  and  the  docility  of  his 
difpofitions,  it  is  worthy  of  remark,  that,  in  India,  all 
the  bales,  facks,  and  tuns,  tranfported  from  one  place  to 
another,  are  carried  by  elephants.  They  carry  burdens 
on  their  bodies,  their  necks,  their  tufks,  and  even  in  their 
mouths,  by  giving  them  the  end  of  a  rope,  which  they 
hold  faft  with  their  teeth.  Uniting  fagacity  with  flrength, 
they  never  break  or  injure  any  thing  committed  to  their 
charge.  From  the  margins  of  the  rivers,  they  put  weighty 
bundles  into  boats  without  wetting  them,  lay  them  down 

gently 

*  Theyenqt,  torn,  3.  pa£,  261.    S.: 


400  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

gently  and  arrange  them  where  they  ought  to  be  placed* 
When  the  goods  are  diipofed  as  their  mailers  direct,  they 
examine  with  their  trunks  whether  the  articles  are  pro- 
perly flowed ;  and  if  a  calk  or  tun  rolls,  they  go  fponta- 
neoufly  in  quell  of  flones  to  prop  and  render  it  firm. 

In  the  elephant,  the  fenfe  of  fmelling  is  acute,  and  he 
is  paffionately  fond  of  odoriferous  flowers,  which  he  col- 
lects one  by  one,  forms  them  into  a  nofegay,  and,  after 
gratifying  his  nofe,  conveys  them  to  his  mouth. 

In  India,  the  domeflic  elephants,  to  whom  the  ufe  of 
water  is  as  neceffary  as  that  of  air,  are  allowed  every 
poffible  conveniency  for  bathing  themfelves.  The  animal 
goes  into  a  river  till  the  water  reaches  his  belly.  He  then 
lies  down  on  one  fide,  fills  his  trunk  feveral  times,  and 
dexteroufly  throws  the  water  on  fuch  parts  as  happen  to 
be  uncovered.  The  mailer,  after  cleaning  and  currying 
one  fide,  defires  the  animal  to  turn  to  the  other,  which 
command  he  obeys  with  the  greateil  alacrity  ;  and,  when 
both  fides  have  been  properly  cleaned,  he  comes  out  of 
the  river,  and  Hands  fome  time  on  the  bank  to  dry  him- 
felf.  The  elephant,  though  his  mafs  be  enormous,  is  an 
excellent  fwimmer ;  and,  of  courfe,  he  is  of  great  ufe  in 
the  paffage  of  rivers.  When  employed  on  occafions  of 
this  kind,  he  is  often  loaded  with  two  pieces  of  cannon 
which  admit  three  or  four  pound  balls,  befide  great  quan- 
tities of  baggage  and  feveral  men  fixed  to  his  ears  and 
tail.  When  thus  heavily  loaded,  he  fpontaneoufly  enters 
the  river  and  fwims  over  with  his  trunk  elevated  in  the 
air  for  the  benefit  of  refpiration.  He  is  fond  of  wine 
and  ardent  fpirits.  By  mowing  him  a  veflel  loaded  with 
any  of  thefe  liquors,  and  promifing  him  it  as  the  reward, 
of  his  labours,  he  is  induced  to  exert  the  greateil  efforts, 
and  to  perform  the  moil  painful  talks.  The  elephant,  as 
we  are  informed  by  M.  de  Buffy,  quoted  by  the  Count 
de  Buffon,  is  employed  in  dragging  artillery  over  moun- 
tains, and,  on  thefe  occafions,  his  lagacity  and  docility 
are  confpicuous.  Horfes  or  oxen,  when  yoked  to  a  can- 
non, make  all  their  exertions  to  pull  it  up  a  declivity. 
But  the  elephant  pumes  the  breach  forward  with  his  front, 
and,  at  each  effort,  iupports  the  carriage  with  his  knee, 

which 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          401 

xvhich  he  places  againft  the  wheel.  He  feerns  to  under- 
ftand  what  his  cornack^  or  conductor,  fays  to  him.  When 
his  conductor  wants  him  to  perform  any  painful  labour, 
he  explains  the  nature  of  the  operation,  and  gives  the  rea- 
fons  which  (hould  induce  him  to  obey.  If  the  elephant  mows 
a  reluctance  to  the  tafk,  the  cornack  promifes  to  give  him 
wine,  arrack,  or  any  other  article  that  he  is  fond  of,  and 
then  the  animal  exerts  his  utmofl  efforts.  But  to  break 
any  promife  made  to  him  is  extremely  dangerous.  Many 
cornacks  have  fallen  victims  to  indiscretions  of  this  kind. 
6  At  Dehan,'  fays  M.  de  Buffy,  '  an  elephant,  from  re- 

*  venge,  killed  his  cornack.    The  man's  wife,  who  beheld 

*  the  dreadful  fcene,  took  her   two  children,  and  threw 
c  them  at  the  feet  of  the   enraged  animal,  faying,  Since 
e  you  have  Jlain  my  hujband*  take  my  life  alfo^  as  well  as 
6  that  of  my  children.     The  elephant  inftantly  flopped,  re- 

*  lented,  and,  as  if  flung  with  remorfe,  took  the  eldeib 

*  boy  in  its  trunk,  placed  him  on  its  neck,  adopted  him 
c  for  its  cornack,  and  would  never  allow  any  other  perfon 
6  to  mount  it.' 

From  the  members  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences, 
we  learn  fome  curious  faces  with  regard  to  the  manners 
of  the  Verfailles  elephant.  This  elephant,  they  remark, 
feemed  to  know  when  it  was  mocked,  and  remembered 
the  affront  till  it  had  an  opportunity  of  revenge.  A  man 
deceived  it,  by  pretending  to  throw  fome  food  into  its 
mouth.  The  animal  gave  him  fuch  a  blow  with  its  trunk 
as  knocked  him  down,  and  broke  two  of  his  ribs.  A 
painter  wanted  to  draw  the  animal  in  an  unufual  attitude, 
with  its  trunk  elevated,  and  its  mouth  open.  The  paint- 
er's fervant,  to  make  it  remain  in  this  pofition,  threw 
fruits  into  its  mouth,  but  generally  made  only  a  feint  of 
throwing  them.  This  conduct  enraged  the  elephant ; 
and,  as  if  it  knew  that  the  painter  was  the  caufe  of  this 
teazing  impertinence,  inflead  of  attacking  the  fervant,  ic 
eyed  the  mafler,  and  fquirted  at  him  from  its  trunk  fuch 
a  quantity  of  water  as  fpoiled  the  paper  on  which  he  was 
drawing.  This  elephant  commonly  made  lefs  life  of  its 
flrength  than  its  addrefs.  It  loofed,  with  great  eafe  and 
coolnefs,  the  buckle  of  a  large  double  leathern  ftrap, 

E  e  e  with 


402  THE   PHILOSOPHY 

with  which  its  leg  was  fixed  ;  and,  as  the  fervants  had 
wrapped  the  buckle  round  with  a  fmall  cord,  and  tied 
many  knots  upon  it,  the  creature,  with  much  delibera- 
tion, loofed  the  whole,  without  breaking  either  flrap  or 
the  cord. 

It  is  remarked  by  le  P.  Vincent  Marie,  that  the  ele- 
phant, when  in  a  domeftic  ftate,  is  highly  efteemed  for 
his  gentlenefs,  docility,  and  friendfhip  to  his  governor. 
When  deftined  to  the  immediate  fervice  of  princes,  he  is 
fenfible  of  his  good  fortune,  and  maintains  a  gravity  of 
demeanour  correfponding  to  the  dignity  of  his  iituation* 
But  if,  on  the  contrary,  lefs  honourable  labours  are  af- 
figned  to  him,  he  grows  melancholy,  frets,  and  evidently 
diicovers  that  he  is  humbled  and  depreffed.  He  is  fond 
of  children,  careflfes  them,  and  appears  to  difcern  the  in- 
nocence of  their  manners.  The  Dutch  voyagers  relate*, 
that,  by  giving  elephants  what  is  agreeable  to  them,  they 
are  foon  rendered  perfectly  tame  and  fubmiflive.  They 
are  fo  fagacious,  that  they  may  be  faid  to  be  deftitute  of 
the  ufe  of  language  only.  They  are  proud  and  ambiti- 
ous ;  and  they  are  fo  grateful  for  good  ufage,  that,  as  a 
mark  of  refpect,  they  bow  their  heads  in  pafling  houfes 
where  they  have  been  hofpitably  received.  They  allow 
themfelves  to  be  led  and  commanded  by  a  child ;  but 
they  love  to  be  praifed  and  carefled.  When  a  wild  ele- 
phant is  taken,  the  hunters  tie  his  feet,  and  one  of  them 
accoils  and  falutes  him,  makes  apologies  for  binding  him, 
protefts  that  no  injury  is  intended,  tells  him,  that,  in  his 
former  condition,  he  frequently  wanted  food,  but  that, 
that,  henceforward,  he  {hall  be  well  treated,  and  that 
every  promife  mall  be  performed  to  him.  This  foothing 
harangue  is  no  fooner  fmiihed  than  the  elephant  placidly 
follows  the  hunter  f.  From  this  facl,  however,  we  mult 
not  conclude  that  the  elephant  underitands  language,  but 
that,  like  the  dog,  he  has  a  ftrong  difcerning  faculty. 
He  diftinguifhes  efteem  from  contempt,  friendfhip  from 
hatred,  and  many  other  emotions  which  are  expreffed  by 

human 

*  Voyage  de  la  Compagnie  dcs  Inde»  de  Hollaride,  torn.  I*  p»gr  4*g.     S. 
+  Voyage  d'Orient.  da  P.  Phillippe,  pag.  366.     S. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.        403 

human  geftures  and  features.     For  this  reafon,  the  ele- 
phant is  more  eafily  tamed  by  mildnefs  than  by  blows. 

e  I  have  frequently  remarked/  fays  Edward  Terry  *,  that 
6  the  elephant  performs  many  aftions  which  feem  to  proceed 

*  more  from  reafon  than  from  inftinct.     He  does   every 
c  thing  which  his  mafter  commands.    If  he  wants  to  terrify 
'  any  perfon,  he  runs  upon  him  with  every  appearance  of 
c  fury,  and,  when  he  comes  near,  flops  fhort,  without  doing 

*  the  perfon[thefmalleftjnjury.   When  the  mafter  choofes  to 
c  affront  any  man,  he  tells  the  elephant,  who  immediately 
c  collects  water  and  mud  with  his  trunk,  and  fquirts  it 

*  upon  the  object  pointed  out  to  him.     The  Mogul  keeps 
4  fome  elephants  who  ferve  as  executioners  to  criminals 
c  condemned  to  death.     When  the  conductor  orders  one 

*  of  thefe  animals  to  defpatch  the  poor  criminals  quickly, 
'  he  tears  them  to  pieces  in  a  moment  with  his  feet :  But, 
c  if  defired  to  torment  them  flowly,  he  breaks  their  bones 

*  one  after  another,  and  makes  them  fufter  a  punifhment 

*  as  cruel  as  that  of  the  wheel.' 

Next  to  the  elephant,  the  dog  feems  to  be  the  moft 
docile  quadruped.  A  wild  dog  is  a  paflionate,  ferocious, 
and  fanguinary  animal.  But,  after  he  is  reduced  to  a 
domeftic  ftate,  thefe  hoftile  difpofitions  are  fuppreffed, 
and  they  are  fucceeded  by  a  warm  attachment,  and  a 
perpetual  defire  of  pleafmg.  The  perceptions  and  natural 
talents  of  the  dog  are  acute.  When  thefe  are  aided  by 
inftruction,  the  fagacity  he  difcovers,  and  the  actions  he 
is  taught  to  perform,  often  excite  our  wonder.  Thofe 
animals  which  man  has  taken  under  his  immediate  pro- 
tection are  taught  to  perform  artificial  actions,  or  have 
their  natural  inftincts  improved,  by  three  modes  of  in- 
flruction,  punifhment,  reward,  and  imitation.  More  duc- 
tile in  his  nature  than  moft  other  animals,  the  dog  not 
only  receives  inftruction  with  rapidity,  but  accommodates 
his  behaviour  and  deportment  to  the  manners  and  habits 
of  thofe  who  command  him.  He  affumes  the  very  tone 
of  the  family  in  which  he  refides.  Eager,  at  all  times, 
to  pleafe  his  mafter,  or  his  friends,  he  furioufly  repels 

beggars ; 

*  Terry's  Voyage  to  the  Eaft  Indies,  pag.  15,     S, 


4c4  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

beggars  j  becaufe  he  probably,  from  their  drefs,  conceives 
them  to  be  either  thieves,  or  competitors  for  food. 

Though  every  dog,  as  well  as  every  man,  is  naturally 
a  hunter,  the  dexterity  of  both  is  highly  improved  by  ex- 
perience and  inftruction.  The  varieties  of  dogs,  by  fre- 
quent intermixtures  with  thofe  of  different  climates,  and 
perhaps  with  foxes  and  wolves,  are  fo  great,  and  their  in- 
frincts  are  fo  much  diver  fined,  that,  even  though  they 
produce  with  each  other,  we  (hould  be  apt  to  regard  them 
as  different  fpecies.  What  a  difference  between  the  natu- 
ral difpofitions  of  the  fhepherd's  dog,  the  fpaniel,  and  the 
grey-hound  ?  The  ihepherd's  dog,  independently  of  all 
inUruclion,  feems  to  be  endowed  by  Nature  with  an  in- 
nate attachment  to  the  prefervation  of  fheep  and  cattle. 
His  docility  is  likewife  fo  great,  that  he  not  only  learns 
to  underttand  the  language  and  commands  of  the  {hep- 
herd,  and  obeys  them  with  faithfulnefs  and  alacrity  ;  but, 
when  at  diftances  beyond  the  reach  of  his  matter's  voice, 
lie  often  flops,  looks  back,  and  recognifes  the  approbati- 
on or  difapprobation  of  the  fhepherd  by  the  mere  waving 
of  his  hand.  He  reigns  at  the  head  of  a  flock,  and  is 
better  heard  than  the  voice  of  his  matter.  His  vigilance 
and  activity  produce  order,  difcipline,  and  fafety.  Sheep 
and  cattle  are  peculiarly  fubjected  to  his  management, 
whom  he  prudently  conducts  and  protects,  and  never  em- 
ploys force  againft  them,  except  for  the  prefervation  of 
peace  and  good  order.  But,  when  the  flock  committed 
to  his  charge  is  attacked  by  the  fox,  the  wolf,  or  other 
rapacious  animals,  he  makes  a  full  difplay  of  his  courage 
and  fagacity.  In  fituations  of  this  kind,  both  his  natural 
and  acquired  talents  are  exerted.  Three  fhepherds  dogs 
are  faid  to  be  a  match  for  a  bear,  and  four  for  a  lion. 

Every  perfon  knows  the  docility  and  fagacity  of  fuch 
dogs  as  are  employed  in  conducting  blind  mendicants. 
Johannes  Faber,  as  quoted  by  Mr.  Ray,  informs  us,  that 
he  knew  a  blind  beggar  who  was  led  through  the  ftreets  of 
Rome  by  a>  middle-fized  dog.  This  dog,  befide  leading 
his  matter  in  fuch  a  manner  as  to  protect  him  from  all 
danger,  learned  to  diftinguifti  not  only  the  ftreets;  but 

the 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          405 

the  houfes  where  his  mafter  was  accuftomed  to  receive 
alms  twice  or  thrice  a-week.  Whenever  the  animal  came 
to  any  of  thefe  ftreets,  with  which  he  was  well  acquainted, 
he  would  not  leave  it  till  a  call  had  been  made  at  every 
houfe  where  his  mafler  was  ufually  fuccefsful  in  his  petiti- 
ons. When  the  beggar  began  to  aik  alms,  the  dog,  being 
weaned,  lay  down  to  reft ;  but  the  mafter  was  no  fooner 
ferved  or  refufed,  than  the  dog  rofe  fpontaneoufly,  and, 
without  either  order  or  fign,  proceeded  to  the  other  hou- 
fes where  the  beggar  generally  received  fome  gratuity.  I 
obferved,  fays  he,  not  without  pleafure  and  furprife,  that, 
when  a  halfpenny  was  thrown  from  a  window,  fuch  was 
the  fagacity  and  attention  of  this  dog,  that  he  went  about 
in  queft  of  it,  lifted  it  from  the  ground  with  his  mouth, 
and  put  it  into  his  mafter's  hat.  Even  when  bread  was 
thrown  down,  the  animal  would  not  tafte  it,  unlefs  he 
received  a  portion  of  it  from  the  hand  of  his  mafter. 
Without  any  other  inftru&ion  than  imitation,  a  maftiff, 
when  accidentally  ihut  out  from  a  houfe  which  his  mafter 
frequented,  uniformly  rung  the  bell  for  admittance.  Dogs 
can  be  taught  to  go  to  market  with  money,  to  repair  to  a 
known  butcher,  and  to  carry  home  the  meat  in  fafety. 
They  can  be  taught  to  dance  to  mufic,  and  to  fearch  for 
and  find  any  thing  that  is  loft  *. 

There  is  a  dog  at  prefent  belonging  to  a  grocer  in  Edin- 
burgh, who  has  for  forne  time  amufed  and  aftonifhed  the 
people  in  the  neighbourhood.  A  man  who  goes  through 
the  ftreets  ringing  a  bell  and  felling  penny  pies,  happen- 
ed one  day  to  treat  this  dog  with  a  pie.  The  next  time 
he  heard  the  pieman's  bell,  he  ran  to  him  with  impetuo- 
fity,  feized  him  by  the  coat,  and  would  not  fuffer  him  to 
pafs.  The  pieman,  who  underftood  what  the  animal 
wanted,  fhowed  him  a  penny,  and  pointed  to  his  mafter, 
who  flood  in  the  ftreet-door,  and  faw  what  was  going  on. 
The  dog  immediately  fupplicated  his  mafter  by  many 
humble  geftures  and  looks.  The  mafter  put  a  penny  in- 
to the  dog's  mouth,  which  he  inftantly  delivered  to  the 
pieman,  and  received  his  pie.  This  traflick  between  the 

pieman 

*  For  thefe  and  many  other  inftances  of  the  fagacity  and  docility  of  the  dog,  the 
r«dcr  may  confult  Synopfa  Qpadruptdtm  a  Joanne  Raio,  p.  6.  &c.    S. 


4o6  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

pieman  and  the  grocer's  dog  has  been  daily  pra&ifed  for 
months  pad,  and  (till  continues. 

Dogs,  horfes,  and  even  hogs,  by  rewards  and  punifh* 
ments,  and,  I  am  afraid,  often  by  cruelty,  may  be  taught 
to  perform  actions,  as  we  have  frequently  feen  in  public 
exhibitions,  which  are  truly  aftonifhing.  But  of  thefe  we 
mufl  not  enter  into  any  detail. 

With  regard  to  the  horfe,  the  gentlenefs  of  his  difpofi- 
tions,  and  the  docility  of  his  temper,  are  fo  well  and  fo 
univerfally  known,  that  it  is  unnecefiary  to  dwell  long 
upon  the  fubject.  To  give  fome  idea  of  what  inftrudtion 
horfes  receive  when  in  a  domeftic  ftate,  we  mall  mention 
fome  traits  of  their  form  and  manners  when  under  no  re- 
flraints.  In  South-America  the  horfes  have  multiplied 
prodigioufly,  and,  in  that  thinly-inhabited  country,  live  in 
perfect  freedom.  They  fly  from  the  prefence  of  man. 
They  wander  about  in  troops,  and  devour,  in  immenfe 
meadows,  the  productions  of  a  perpetual  fpring.  Wild 
horfes  are  ftronger,  lighter,  and  more  nervous,  than  the 
generality  of  thofe  which  are  kept  in  a  domeftic  ftate. 
They  are  by  no  means  ferocious.  Though  fuperior  in 
ftrength  to  moil  animals,  they  never  make  an  attack. — 
When  a  (faulted,  however,  they  either  difdain  the  enemy, 
or  ftrike  him  dead  with  their  heels.  They  aflbciate  in 
troops  from  mutual  attachment,  and  neither  make  war 
with  other  animals  nor  among  themfelves.  As  their  ap* 
petites  are  moderate,  and  they  have  few  objects  to  excite 
envy  or  difcord,  they  live  in  perpetual  peace.  Their  man- 
ners  are  gentle,  and  their  tempers  focial.  Their  force 
and  ardour  are  rendered  confpicuous  only  by  marks  of 
emulation.  They  are  anxious  to  be  foremoft  in  the  courfe, 
to  brave  danger  in  croffing  a  river,  or  in  leaping  a  ditch 
or  precipice ;  and,  it  is  faid,  that  thofe  horfes  which  are 
mod  adventurous  and  expert  in  thefe  natural  exercifes, 
are,  when  domefticated,  the  moft  generous,  mild,  and 
tractable. 

Wild  horfes  are  taken  notice  of  by  feveral  of  the  an- 
cients. Herodotus  mentions  white  wild  horfes  on  the 
banks  of  the  Hypanis,  in  Scythia.  He  likewife  tells  us, 
that,  ir*  the  northern  part  of  Thrace,  beyond  the  Danube, 

there 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  407 

there  were  wild  horfes  covered  all  over  with  hair  five 
inches  in  length.  The  wild  horfes  in  America  are  the 
offspring  of  domeftic  horfes  originally  tranfported  thither 
from  Europe  by  the  Spaniards.  The  author  of  the  hif- 
tory  of  the  Buccaneers*  informs  us,  that  troops  of  horfes, 
fometimes  confiding  of  500,  are  frequently  met  with  in 
the  iiland  of  St.  Domingo ;  that,  when  they  fee  a  man, 
they  all  flop  ;  and  that  one  of  their  number  approaches 
to  a  certain  diftance,  blows  through  his  noftrils,  takes 
flight,  and  is  inltantly  followed  by  the  whole  troop.  He 
defcribes  them  as  having  grofs  heads  and  limbs,  and  long 
necks  and  ears.  The  inhabitants  tame  them  with  eafe, 
and  then  train  them  to  labour.  In  order  to  take  them, 
gins  of  ropes  are  laid  in  the  places  where  they  are  known 
to  frequent.  When  caught  by  the  neck,  they  foon  flran- 
gle  themfelves,  unlefs  fome  perfon  arrive  in  time  to  dif- 
entangle  them.  They  are  tied  to  trees  by  the  body  and 
limbs,  and  are  left  in  that  fituation  two  days  without  vie* 
tuals  or  drink.  This  treatment  is  generally  fufficient  to 
render  them  more  tractable,  and  they  foon  become  as 
gentle  as  if  they  had  never  been  wild.  Even  when  any 
of  thefe  horfes,  by  accident,  regain  their  liberty,  they 
never  refume  their  favage  (late,  but  know  their  matters^ 
and  allow  themfelves  to  be  approached  and  retaken. 

From  thefe,  and  fimilar  fads,  it  may  be  concluded, 
that  the  difpofitions  of  horfes  are  gentle,  and  that  they 
are  naturally  difpofed  to  affociate  with  man.  After  they 
are  tamed  they  never  forfake  the  abodes  of  men.  On  the 
contrary,  they  are  anxious  to  return  to  the  (table.  The 
fweets  of  habit  feem  to  fupply  all  they  have  loft  by  flave- 
ry.  When  fatigued,  the  manfion  of  repofe  is  full  of 
comfort.  They  fmell  it  at  confiderable  diflances,  can  dif- 
tinguiih  it  in  the  midft  of  populous  cities,  and  feem  uni- 
formly to  prefer  bondage  to  liberty.  By  fome  attention 
and  addrefs  colts  are  firft  rendered  tractable.  When  that 
point  is  gained,  by  different  modes  of  management,  the 
docility  of  the  animal  is  improved,  and  they  foon  learn 
to  perform  with  alacrity  the  various  labours  afligned  to 
them.  The  domeftication  of  the  horfe  is  perhaps  the  no- 

bleft 

*  L'Hift,  des  Avantcur,  Flibuftiers,  torn,  i,  pag.  no.    S- 


4o8  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

bled  acquisition  from  the  animal  world  which  has  ever 
been  made  by  the  genius,  the  art,  and  the  induftry  of 
man*  He  is  taught  to  partake  of  the  dangers  and  fatigues 
of  war,  and  feems  to  enjoy  the  glory  of  victory.  He  en- 
counters death  with  ardour  and  with  magnanimity.  He 
delights  in  the  tumult  of  arms,  and  attacks  the  enemy 
with  refolution  and  alacrity.  It  is  not  in  perils  and  con- 
flicts alone  that  the  horfe  co-operates  with  the  difpofitions 
of  his  mafter.  He  even  feems  to  participate  of  human 
pleafures  and  amufements.  He  delights  in  the  chace  and 
the  tournament,  and  his  eyes  fparkle  with  emulation  in 
the  courfe.  Though  bold  and  intrepid,  however,  he  does 
not  allow  himfelf  to  be  hurried  on  by  a  furious  ardour. 
On  proper  occafions,  he  repreffes  his  movements,  and 
knows  how  to  check  the  natural  fire  of  his  temper.  He 
not  only  yields  to  the  hand,  but  feems  to  confult  the  in- 
clination, of  his  rider.  Always  obedient  to  the  impreffi- 
ons  he  receives,  he  flies  or  flops,  and  regulates  his  moti- 
ons folely  by  the  will  of  his  mailer. 

Mr.  Ray,  who  wrote  about  the  end  of  laft  century,  in- 
forms us,  that  he  had  feen  a  horfe  who  danced  to  mufic, 
who,  at  the  command  of  his  matter,  affected  to  be  lame, 
who  fimulated  death,  lay  motionlefs '  with  his  limbs  ex- 
tended, and  allowed  himfelf  to  be  dragged  about,  till 
fome  words  were  pronounced,  when  he  inllantly  fprung 
up  on  his  feet  *.  Facts  of  this  kind  would  fcarcely  re- 
ceive credit,  if  every  perfon  were  not  now  acquainted  with 
the  wonderful  docility  of  the  horfes  educated  by  Aftley, 
and  other  public  exhibitors  of  horfemanfhip.  In  exhibi- 
tions of  this  kind,  the  docility  and  prompt  obedience  of 
the  animals  deferve  more  admiration  than  the  dexterous 
feats  of  the  men. 

Animals  of  the  ox-kind,  in  a  domeflic  Hate,  are  dull 
and  phlegmatic.  Their  fenfibility  and  talents  feem  to  be 
very  limited.  But  we  fhould  not  pronounce  raflily  con- 
cerning the  genius  and  powers  of  animals  in  a  country 
where  their  education  is  totally  neglected.  In  all  the 
fouthern  provinces  of  Africa  and  Afia,  there  are  many 
wild  bifons,  or  bunched  oxen,  which  are  young  and  tarn. 

ed. 

*  Raii  Synopfrs  Animaliuir.  Quadrupedum,  pag.  10.     S. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.        409 

ed.     They  are  foon   taught  to  fubmit,    without   refifl- 
ance,    to   all  kinds  of  domeftic  labour.     They  become 
fo  tractable,  that  they  are  managed  with  as  much  eafe  as 
our  horfes.     The  voice  of  their  matter  is  alone  fufficient 
to  make  them  obey,  and  to  direct  their  courfe.     They 
are  mod,  curried,  carefled,  and  fupplied  abundantly  with 
the  bed  food.     When  managed  in  this  manner,  thefe  ani- 
mals  appear  to  be    different   creatures   from  our  oxen. 
The  oxen  of  the  Hottentots  are  favourite  domeflics,  com- 
panions in  amufements,   affiftants  in  all  laborious  exer- 
cifes,  and  participate  the  habitation,    the  bed,    and  the 
table  of  their  mafters.     As  their  nature  is  improved  by 
the  gentlenefs  of  their  education,    by  the  kind  treatment 
they  receive,    and  the  perpetual    attention  beftowed   on 
them,  they  acquire  fenfibility  and  intelligence,  and  per- 
form actions  which  one  would  not  expect  from  them.  The 
Hottentots  train  their  oxen  to  war.     In  all  their  armies 
there  are  confiderable  troops  of  thefe  oxen,  which  are  ea- 
fily  governed,  and  are  let  loofe  by  the  chief  when  a  pro- 
per opportunity  occurs.  They  inftantly  dart  with  impetu- 
olity  upon  the  enemy.     They  flrike  with  their  horns,  kick, 
overturn,  and  trample  under  their  feet  every  thing  that  op- 
pofes  their  fury.  They  run  ferocioufly  into  the  ranks,  which 
they  foon  put  in  the  utmofl  diforder,    and  thus  pave  the 
way  for  an  eafy  vitlory  to  their  mafters*.     Thefe  oxen 
are  likewife  infiructed  to  guard  the  flocks,  which  they  con- 
duct with  dexterity,  and  defend  them  from  the  attacks  of 
flrangers,  and  of  rapacious  animals.     They  are  taught  to 
diftinguifh  friends  from  enemies,  to  underfland  fignals, 
and  to  obey  the  commands  of  their  mafter.     When  paf- 
turing,  at  thefmallefl  fignal  from  the  keeper,  they  bring; 
back  and  collect  the  wandering  animals.     They  attack  all 
flrangers  with  fury,  which  renders  them  a  great  fecurity 
againft  robbers.     Thefe  brackeleys9    as  they  are  called, 
know  every  inhabitant  of  the  kraal,    and  difcover   the 
fame  marks  of  refpect  for  all  the  men,  women,  and  chil- 
dren, as   a  dog  does  for  thofe  who  live  in  his  mailer's 
houfe.    Thefe  people  may,  therefore,  approach  their  cattle 
with  the  greatefl  fafety.     But  if  a  ftranger,  and  particu- 

Fff  larly 

*  Voyage  de  Cap,  par  Kolbe,  torn.  t.  pag.  160.     S. 


4io  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

i 

larly  an  European,  fhould  ufe  the  fame  freedom,  without 
being  accompanied  with  one  of  the  Hottentots,  his  life 
would  be  in  imminent  danger*. 

Notwithftanding  the  many  furprifmg  actions  which 
different  quadrupeds  may  be  taught  to  perform,  none  of 
them,  though  their  organs  are  much  more  perfect  than 
thofe  of  birds,  have  ever  been  able  to  pronounce  articu- 
late founds.  But  many  birds,  without  much  inftruction, 
learn  to  pronounce  words,  and  even  fentences.  In  par- 
rots, the  diftinguifhing  accuracy  of  their  ear,  the  acute- 
nefs  of  their  attention,  and  their  ftrong  inftinctive  propen- 
iity  to  imitate  founds  of  every  kind,  have  juftly  procured 
them  univerfal  admiration.  When  in  a  (late  of  domefti^ 
cation,  the  parrot  learns  to  pronounce  the  common  ftreet 
calls,  befide  many  words  and  phrafes  occafionally  employ, 
ed  by  the  family  in  which  he  refides.  Tho'  the  limitation  of 
his  mental  powers  does  not  permit  him  to  learn  any  extent 
of  languge,  or  the  proper  ufe  and  meaning  of  words,  he 
not  unfrequently  difcovers  the  aflbciation  between  the  ob- 
ject and  the  found.  A  woman  every  morning  pafled  the 
window,  where  a  parrot's  cage  was  fixed,  calling  fait. 
The  parrot  foon  learned  to  imitate  the  call.  But,  before 
any  found  could  be  heard,  he  no  fooner  caft  his  eye  upon 
the  woman  than  he  uttered  her  ufual  call.  In  this  and 
many  other  fimilar  cafes,  the  objects  and  the  founds  are 
evidently  connected  in  the  mind  of  the  animals.  How 
far  thefe  aflbciations  might  be  carried  by  a  patient  and 
perfevering  education,  it  is  difficult  to  determine.  In  this 
manner,  however,  parrots  might  be  taught  a  confidera- 
ble  vocabulary  of  fubftantive  nouns,  or  the  proper  names 
of  common  objects.  But  his  intellect,  it  is  more  than 
probable,  would  never  reach  the  ufe  of  the  verb,  and 
other  parts  of  fpeech. 

Befide  parrots,  jays,  &c.  who  learn  to  pronounce  ar- 
ticulate founds,  there  is  another  race  of  birds  whofe  do- 
cility deferves  to  be  mentioned.  Singing  birds,  thofe 
lively  and  fpirited  little  animals,  attempt  not  to  articulate. 
But  their  mufical  ears  are  as  delicate  and  difcerning  as 
their  voices  are  melodious  and  delightful.  The  vivacity, 

*  Voyage  de  Cap,  par  Kolbe,  p.ag.  307.     S. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.        411 

the  extent  of  voice,  and  the  imitative  powers  of  thefe 
beautiful  creatures,  have  at  all  times  excited  the  attention 
and  conciliated  the  affections  of  mankind.  When  domef- 
ticated,  thefe  birds,  befide  their  natural  notes,  foon  ac- 
quire the  faculty  of  fmging  confiderable  parts  of  artificial 
tunes.  Thefe  imitations  are  effects  of  natural  initinct. 
But,  in  exhibitions,  I  have  feen  linnets  fimulate  death, 
and  remain  perfectly  tranquil  and  unmoved,  when  fmall 
cannons  were  fired,  within  an  inch  of  their  bodies,  from 
a  wooden  fort.  Thefe  little  creatures  have  even  been 
taught  to  lay  hold  of  a  match  and  fire  the  cannons  them- 
felves. 

The  docility  and  fagacity  of  animals  have  always  been 
confidered  as  wonderful.  But  this  wonder  is  partly  the 
effect  of  inattention ;  for,  though  man  is  unquefHonably 
the  chief  of  the  animal  creation,  the  other  animals,  ac- 
cording to  the  number  of  inftincts,  or,  which  amounts 
to  the  fame  thing,  according  to  the  mental  powers  with 
which  Nature  has  endowed  them,  comparatively  approach 
to  or  recede  from  the  fagacity  and  genius  of  the  human 
fpecies.  The  whole  is  a  graduated  fcale  of  intelligence. 
A  philofopher  fhould,  therefore,  contemplate  and  admire 
the  whole,  but  fhould  never  be  furprifed  at  any  partial 
exhibitions  of  the  general  fcene  of  intellect  and  anima- 
tion. 

We  mall  conclude  this  fubject  with  a  few  remarks  con- 
cerning the  changes  produced  in  animals  by  DOMESTICA- 
TION. 

Climate  and  food  are  the  chief  caufes  which  produce 
changes  in  the  magnitude,  figure,  colour,  and  conftitu- 
tion,  of  wild^  animals.  But,  befide  thefe  caufes,  there 
are  others  which  have  an  influence  upon  animals  when 
reduced  to  a  domeflic  or  unnatural  ftate.  When  at  per- 
fect liberty,  animals  feem  to  have  feleded  thofe  particular 
zones  or  regions  of  the  globe  which  are  moft  confonant 
to  the  nature  and  conftitution  of  each  particular  tribe. 
There  they  fpontaneouily  remain,  and  never,  like  man, 
difperfe  themfelves  over  the  whole  furface  of  the  earth. 
But,  when  obliged  by  man,  or  by  any  great  revolution  of 
Nature,  to  abandon  their  native  foil,  they  undergo  chan- 
ges 


4i2  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

ges  fo  great,  that,  to  recognife  and  diflinguifh  them,  re* 
courfe  mufl  be  had  to  the  mod  accurate  examination.  If 
we  add  to  climate  and  food,  thofe  natural  caufes  of  alter- 
ation in  free  animals,  the  empire  of  man  over  fuch  of 
them  as  he  has  reduced  to  fervitude,  the  degree  to  which 
tyranny  degrades  and  disfigures  Nature,  will  appear  to  be 
greatly  augmented.  The  mouflon,  the  flock  from  which 
our  domeftic  fheep  have  derived  their  origin,  is  compara- 
tively a  large  animal.  He  is  as  fleet  as  a  flag,  armed  with 
horns  and  flrong  hoofs,  and  covered  with  coarfe  hair. 
With  thefe  natural  advantages,  he  dreads  neither  the  in- 
clemency of  the  fky,  nor  the  voracity  of  the  wolf.  By 
the  fwiftnefs  of  his  courfe,  he  not  only  efcapes  from  his 
enemies-,  but  he  is  enabled  to  refifl  them  by  the  flrength 
of  his  body  and  the  folidity  of  his  arms.  How  different 
is  this  animal  from  our  domeflic  fheep,  who  are  timid, 
weak,  and  unable  to  defend  themfelves  ?  Without  the 
protection  of  man,  the  whole  race  would  foon  be  extir- 
pated by  rapacious  animals  and  by  wmler-ftorms.  In  the 
warmed  climates  of  Africa  and  of  Afia,  the  moufion, 
who  is  the  common  parent  of  the  fheep,  appears  to  be  lefs 
degenerated  than  in  any  other  region.  Though  reduced 
to  a  domeflic  flate,  he  has  preferved  his  flature  and  his 
hair;  but  the  fize  of  his  horns  is  diminimed.  The  fheep 
of  Barbary,  Egypt,  Arabia,  Perfia,  &c.  have  undergone 
greater  changes  ;  and,  in  proportion  as  they  approach 
toward  either  pole,  they  diminifh  in  fize,  in  ftrength,  in 
fwiftnefs,  and  in  courage.  In  relation  to  man,  they  are 
improved  in  fome  articles,  and  vitiated  in  others.  Their 
coarfe  hair  is  converted  into  fine  wool.  But,  with  regard 
to  Nature,  improvement  and  degeneration  amount  to  the 
fame  thing ;  for  both  imply  an  alteration  of  the  original 
conflitution. 

The  ox  is  more  influenced  by  nourifhment  than  any 
other  domeflic  animal.  In  countries  where  the  paflure  is 
luxuriant,  the  oxen  acquire  a  prodigious  fize.  To  the 
oxen  of  ^Ethiopia  and  fome  provinces  of  Afia,  the  anci- 
ents gave  the  appellation  of  Bull-Elephants ,  becaufe,  in 
thefe  regions,  they  approach  to  the  magnitude  of  the  ele- 
phant. This  efFecl  is  chiefly  produced  by  the  abundance 

of 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.        413 

©f  rich  and  fucculent  herbage.  The  Highlands  of  Scot- 
land, and  indeed  every  high  and  northern  country,  af- 
ford ftriking  examples  of  the  influence  of  food  upon  the 
magnitude  of  cattle.  The  oxen,  as  well  as  the  hories,  in 
the  more  northern  parts  of  Scotland,  are  extremely  di- 
minutive ;  but,  when  tranfported  to  richer  pafture,  their 
fize  is  augmented,  and  the  qualities  of  their  flefh  are  im- 
proved. The  climate  has  likewife  a  confiderable  influ- 
ence on  the  nature  of  the  ox.  In  the  northern  regions 
of  both  continents,  he  is  covered  with  long  foft  hair.  He 
has  likewife  a  large  bunch  on  his  moulders  ;  and  this  de- 
formity is  common  to  the  oxen  of  Afia,  Africa,  and  A- 
merica.  Thofe  of  Europe  have  no  bunch.  The  Euro- 
pean oxen,  however,  feem  to  be  the  primitive  race,  to 
which  the  bunched  kind  afcend,  by  intermixture,  in  the 
fecond  or  third  generation.  The  difference  in  their  fize 
is  remarkably  great.  The  fmall  zebu,  or  bunched  ox  of 
Arabia,  is  not  one  tenth  part  of  the  magnitude  of  the 
./Ethiopian  bull-elephant. 

The  influence  of  food  upon  the  dog-kind  feems  not  to 
be  great.  In  all  his  variations  and  degradations,  he  ap- 
pears to  follow  the  differences  of  climate.  In  the  warm- 
eft  climates,  he  is  naked  ;  in  the  northern  regions,  he  is 
covered  with  a  coarfe  thick  hair  ;  and  he  is  adorned  with 
a  fine  filky  robe,  in  Spain  and  Syria,  where  the  mild  tem- 
perature of  the  air  converts  the  hair  of  moft  quadrupeds 
into  a  kind  of  filk.  Befide  thefe  external  variations  pro- 
duced by  climate,  the  dog  undergoes  other  changes, 
which  proceed  from  his  fituation,  his  captivity,  and  the 
nature  of  the  intercourfe  he  holds  with  man.  His  fize  is 
augmented  or  diminimed  by  obliging  the  fmaller  kinds  to 
unite  together,  and  by  obferving  the  fame  conducl  with 
the  larger  individuals.  The  fhortening  the  tail  and  ears 
proceeds  alfo  from  the  hand  of  man.  Dogs  who  fcave  had 
their  ears  and  tails  cut  for  a  few  generations,  tranfmit 
thefe  defects,  in  a  certain  degree,  to  their  defcendents. 
Pendulous  ears,  the  mod  certain  mark  of  domeftic  fer- 
vitude  and  of  fear,  are  almofl  univerfal.  Of  many  races 
of  dogs,  a  few  only  have  retained  the  primitive  ftate  of 

their 


t  H  £     PHILOSOPHY 

their  ears.     Ere£t  ears  are  now  confined  to  the  wolf-dog, 
the  fhepherd's  dog,  and  the  dog  of  the  North. 

The  colour  of  animals  is  greatly  variegated  by  domef- 
tication.  The  dog,  the  ox,  the  (beep,  the  goat,  the  horfe, 
have  aflumed  all  kinds  of  colours,  and  even  mixtures  of 
colours,  in  the  fame  individuals.  The  hog  has  chang- 
ed from  black  to  white ;  and  white,  without  the  inter- 
mixture of  fpots,  is  generally  accompanied  with  eflential 
imperfections.  Men  who  are  remarkably  fair,  and  whofe 
hair  is  white,  have  generally  a  defect  in  their  hearing, 
and,  at  the  fame  time,  weak  and  red  eyes.  Quadrupeds 
which  are  entirely  white  have  likewife  red  eyes  and  a  dull- 
nefs  of  hearing.  The  variations  from  the  original  colour 
are  moft  remarkable  in  our  domeftic  fowls.  In  a  brood 
of  chickens,  though  the  eggs  be  laid  by  the  fame  hen,  and 
though  the  female  be  impregnated  by  the  fame  male,  not 
one  of  them  has  the  fame  colours  with  another. 

Domeftication  not  only  changes  the  external  appear- 
ances of  animals,  but  alters  and  modifies  their  natural 
difpofitions.  The  dog,  for  example,  when  in  a  (late  of 
liberty,  is  a  rapacious  quadruped,  and  hunts  and  devours 
the  weaker  fpecies :  But,  after  he  has  fubmitted  to  the 
dominion  of  man,  he  relinquifhes  his  natural  ferocity,  and 
is  converted  into  a  mean,  fervile,  patient,  and  parafiti- 
cal  flave. 


CHAP. 


OF   NATURAL    HISTORY.        415 


CHAPTER       XVIII. 


Of  the  Characters  of  Animals. 


ON  this  fubject  it  never  was  intended  to  paint  thecha- 
raders  of  every  fpecies,  even  of  the  larger  animals. 
The  reader  will  eafily  recoiled,  that,  in  many  parts  of 
this  work,  much  has  already  been  faid  with  regard  to  the 
tempers,  difpofitions,  and  manners,  of  a  great  number  of 
animals.  Thefe  we  mall  not  repeat,  but  proceed  to  fome 
general  remarks. 

On  every  animal  Nature  has  imprinted  a  certain  cha* 
r after )  which  is  indelibly  fixed,  and  diflinguifhes  the  fpe- 
cies. This  character  we  difcover  by  the  actions,  the  air, 
the  countenance,  the  movements,  and  the  whole  external 
appearance.  The  courage  of  the  lion,  the  ferocity  of  the 
tiger,  the  voracioufnefs  of  the  wolf,  the  pride  of  thecour- 
fer,  the  dulnefs  and  indolence  of  the  afs,  the  cunning  and 
addrefs  of  the  fox,  the  affection  and  docility  of  the  dog,, 
the  fubtlety  and  felfifhnefs  of  the  cat,  the  mildnefs  of  the 
fheep,  the  timidity  of  the  hare,  the  vivacity  of  the  fquirrel,. 
are  proper  examples.  Thefe  characters,  when  under  the 
influence  of  domeftication,  may  be  modified  by  education, 
of  which  rewards  and  punishments  are  the  chief  inflruments 
employed.  But  the  original  character,  impreffed  by  the 
hand  of  Nature,  is  never  fully  obliterated.  Thofe  animals 
which  feem  to  have  been  defined  by  Nature  to  live  in  per* 
petual  ilavery  under  the  dominion  of  man,  have  the  mildefl 
and  moil  gentle  difpofitions.  It  is  pleafant,  but,  at  the, 
fame  time,  fomewhat  contemptible,  to  fee  a  troop  of  oxen 
guided  by  the  whip  of  a  child. 

In  the  human  fpecies,  the  variety  of  tempers,  afFedi* 
ons,  averfions,  and  fludies,  is  indifpenfibly  necelfary  for 
fupporting  the  facial  Hate,  and  carrying  on  the  general 

bufmefs 


4i6  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

bufinefs  of  life.  Some  minds  are  formed  for  (ludy  and 
deep  refearch,  and  others  for  aftion,  courage,  and  the  ex- 
ertion of  bodily  powers.  The  fame  variety  in.  the  difpofi- 
tions  and  manners  of  the  different  tribes  of  animals  is 
equally  neceffary  for  peopling  the  earth,  and  for  fupplying 
the  reciprocal  exigencies  of  its  inhabitants. 

Befide  the  general  fpecific  characters  of  animals,  indi- 
vidual characters,  efpecially  among  the  human  race,  are 
ftrongly  marked,  and  greatly  variegated.  In  every  go- 
vernment, and  particularly  in  commercial  ftates,  human 
characters,  independently  of  the  original  bias,  or  genius, 
ftamped  by  Nature  on  individual  minds,  are  often  fo  dif- 
guifed  by  a  thoufand  artifices,  that  it  requires  not  only 
time,  but  frequent  interefting  fcenes,  before  a  man  can 
difcover  the  real  character  even  of  an  intimate  compani- 
on. Many  men  aifociate  together  in  the  moft  harmoni- 
ous manner,  and  {how  every  fymptom  of  friendship  and 
attachment ;  but,  when  any  of  them  happens  to  be  dif- 
trefled,  and  to  require  aid,  all  this  apparent  friendfhip  in- 
ftantly  vanifhes  ;  the  afpect  of  the  countenance,  inftead  of 
exhibiting  fympathy  and  cordiality,  is  converted  into  a 
cold  referve,  and  the  unfortunate  former  companion  is 
firil  fhunned,  and  then  deferted.  This  picture  of  human 
nature,  we  are  forry  to  remark,  is  too  general ;  but,  thank 
Heaven,  it  is  not  univerfal ;  for  there  always-  were,  and 
flill  are,  men  of  noble  and  generous  minds,  who  willing- 
ly facrifice  part  of  their  own  interefl  to  that  of  their 
friends. 

With  regard  to  the  characters  of  quadrupeds,  befide 
the  fpecific  difpofitions  which  diftinguifh  the  different 
kinds,  each  individual  poffefles  a  peculiar  character  by 
which  it  may  be  difcriminated  from  any  other.  Thefe 
individual  characters  may  be  difcovered  not  only  by  the 
afpect,  but  by  the  a&ions,  of  animals.  Some  dogs,  even 
of  the  fame  race,  are  furly,  churlifh,  and  revengeful. 
Others  are  gay,  frolickfome,  and  friendly.  The  counte- 
nances of  men,  which  always  indicate  fome  part  of  their 
original  and  genuine  character,  are  as  various  as  their 
numbers.  Though  lefs  fubject  to  general  obfervation, 
Nature  has  marked  the  countenances  of  every  aftimal, 

even 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.        417 

even  down  to  the  infect  tribes,  with  fome  characteriftic 
ftrokes,  which  enable  them  to  diftinguifh  one  another, 
and  even  to  contract  particular  attachments.  To  us,  the 
frnall  birds,  fuch  as  fparrows  and  linnets,  appear  to  be  fo 
perfectly  fimilar,  that,  though  we  had  an  opportunity  of 
feeing  great  numbers  of  them  collected  in  one  place,  it 
would  require  much  time  and  attention  to  be  enabled  to 
make  particular  diminutions.  After  they  have  brought 
up  their  young,  they  aflbciate  promifcuoufly  in  flocks ; 
but,  when  the  genial  fpring  arrives,  a  different  fcene  is 
exhibited.  The  flocks  difappear.  Each  male  has  felecl- 
ed,  courted,  and  retired  with  a  female  to  build  a  nefl,  to 
hatch  eggs,  and  to  noufifh  and  fupport  their  young.  If 
Nature  had  not  (tamped  upon  every  individual  a  peculiar 
mark,  it  would  be  impoffible  that  the  immenfe  multitudes 
who  pair,  or  join  in  matrimony,  mould  be  capable  of  dif- 
tinguifhing  and  adhering  faithfully  to  one  another.  A 
fhepherd,  who  has  been  long  accuftomed  to  fuperintend  a 
numerous  flock,  knows,  by  the  countenances,  and  other 
natural  or  accidental  marks,  every  individual.  I  knew 
a  fhepherd,  who  not  only  diilinguifhed  every  individual 
of  above  two  hundred  fheep,  but  gave  to  each  a  particu- 
lar name. 

The  characters  of  quadrupeds,  and  even  of  fome  birds, 
are  indicated  by  obfcure  refemblances  between  the  linea- 
ments of  their  faces,  and  thofe  of  men  of  different  fea- 
tures and  difpofidons.  Some  men,  in  the  general  ex- 
preffion  of  their  countenances,  refemble  goats,  others 
fheep,  others  oxen,  others  fwine,  others  lions,  others 
dogs,  others  foxes,  others  owls,  others  hawks.  Even 
in  particular  races  of  the  fame  fpecies,  fimilarities  of 
this  kind  may  be  traced.  I  know  fome  men  who  re- 
femble terriers,  others  greyhounds,  others  fpaniels,  others 
the  fhepherd's  dog,  others  the  lap-dog,  &c.  Some  of 
thefe  refemblances  may  be  regarded  as  fanciful,  and  per- 
haps they  frequently  are.  But,  in  general,  when  the  refem- 
blance  to  a  particular  animal  is  ftrongly  marked  in  the 
human  countenance,  the  difpofitions  of  the  man  have  a 
ftriking  affinity  to  thofe  of  the  animal.  Men  who  re- 
femble the  fox  are  uniformly  cunning  and  deceitful. 

G  g  g  Thofe 


4i8  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

Thofe  who  referable  the  ox  are  dull,  ftupid,  and  phleg- 
matic. Thofe  who  referable  the  lion  are  bold,  open,  ge- 
nerous, and  witty.  Thofe  who  refemble  the  cat  are  cir~ 
cumfpeft,  defigning,  and  avaricious.  Thofe  who  refem- 
ble the  greyhound  are  vigilant,  adive,  and  fmart.  Thofe 
who  refemble  the  lap-dog  are  vain,  prefumptuous,  petu- 
lant, and  lafcivious.  Thofe  who  refemble  the  fow  are 
difguftful  both  in  their  appearance  and  in  their  difpofiti- 
ons.  Thofe  who  refemble  a  crofs-made  horfe  are  cru- 
el, unfeeling,  and  highly  felfifh.  Thofe  who  refemble 
the  fpaniel,  of  whom  the  examples  are  numerous,  are 
fawning,  mean,  and  parafitical.  Thofe  who  refemble  the 
fheep  are  dull,  timid,  and  inoffenfive.  Thofe  who  refem- 
ble the  goat  are  fanciful,  obftinate,  and  libidinous.  Thofe 
who  refemble  a  fine  horfe  are  intrepid,  generous,  tracla- 
ble,  and  good-humoured.  Thofe  who  refemble  a  hawk 
are  quick,  defultory,  and  ingenious.  Thofe  who  refem- 
ble the  owl  are  dark,  defigning,  and  treacherous.  Thofe 
who  refemble  the  bee  are  active,  ignorant,  and  induftri- 
ous.  It  is  needlefs  to  multiply  examples.  Every  man's 
recollection  and  obfervation  will  furnifh  him  with  num- 
berlefs  coincidences  between  the  fimilarities  in  ftru&ure 
and  features  to  particular  animals,  and  the  form,  difpofi- 
tions,  and  manners,  of  the  men  who  poflefs  them. 

Cornparifons  have  been  inftituted,  and  analogies  traced, 
between  the  flruclure,  afpecl:,  and  difpofitions,  of  fome 
quadrupeds  and  thofe  of  certain  birds,  which  mow  a  uni- 
formity in  the  general  plan  of  Nature.  Among  birds,  as 
well  as  quadrupeds,  fome  fpecies  are  carnivorous,  and 
others  feed  upon  fruits,  grain,  and  various  kinds  of  herb- 
age. The  eagle,  which  is  a  noble  and  a  generous  bird, 
reprefents  the  lion.  The  vulture,  which  is  cruel  and  in- 
fatiable,  reprefents  the  tiger.  The  kite,  the  buzzard,  and 
the  raven,  who  live  chiefly  on  offals  and  carrion,  repre- 
fent  the  hyaena,  the  wolf,  and  the  jackal.  The  falcon,  the 
fparrow-hawk,  and  other  birds  employed  in  hunting,  re- 
prefent  the  dog,  the  fox,  the  lynx,  &c.  The  owl,  who 
fearches  for  her  prey  in  the  night,  reprefents  the  cat.  The 
heron  and  the  cormorant,  who  feed  upon  fifhes,  reprefent 

the 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.        419 

the  heaver  and  the  otter.  Peacocks,  hens,  and  all  other 
birds  which  have  a  crop,  or  craw,  reprefent  oxen,  fheep, 
goats,  and  other  ruminating  animals. 


CHAPTER      XIX. 

Of  the  Principle  of  Imitation. 


IMITATION  neceffarily  implies  fome  degree  of  intel- 
ligence. All  animals,  particularly  thofe  of  the  more 
perfect  kinds,  are  endowed  with  the  principle  of  imitati- 
on. The  confequence  is  obvious,  that  all  animals  poflefs 
a  certain  portion  of  intellectual  power.  In  man,  the  prin- 
ciple of  imitation  appears  at  a  very  early  period  of  his 
exiftence.  In  the  more  advanced  ftages  of  life,  this 
principle  is  fo  interwoven  with  other  motives  of  act- 
ing and  thinking,  that  it  is  difficult  to  diftinguifh  it  as 
a  feparate  inilincl,  and  equally  difficult  to  conquer  the 
habits  and  prejudices  to  which  it  has  given  rife.  The  lefs 
a  man  has  cultivated  his  rational  faculties,  the  more 
powerful  is  the  principle  of  imitation  over  his  actions  and 
his  habits  of  thinking.  Mod  women,  of  courfe,  are 
more  influenced  by  the  behaviour,  the  fafhions,  and  the 
opinions  of  thofe  with  whom  they  afibciate  than  men. 
From  this  almoft  irrefiftible  inflincl:,  we  fhould  learn  the 
extreme  danger  of  frequenting  the  company  of  the  diflb- 
lute  and  unprincipled  ;  for  bad  habits  are  foon  acquired, 
but  very  difficult  to  conquer.  It  is  a  comfortable  circum- 
flance,  however,  that  if  men,  efpecially  when  young,  are 
fortunate  enough  to  fall  in  with  the  fociety  of  the  virtu- 
ous and  intelligent,  the  principle  of  imitation,  fo  bene- 
volent is  Nature,  ads  with  redoubled  force.  If  we  at- 
tend to  our  own  feelings,  we  muft  acknowledge,  that,  in 
the  acquisition  of  bad  habits,  there  is  an  evident  force 
upon  our  natural  inclinations,  but  that,  in  virtuous  aflb- 

ciationsj 


42o  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

ciations,  the  mind  acquiefces  with  pleafure,  and  feels  no 
reftraint  in  complying  with  the  examples  it  perceives,  nor 
in  acquiring  the  correfpondent  habits.  We  are  prone  to 
evil ;  but,  when  not  corrupted  by  improper  imitations, 
Nature  has  made  us  much  more  prone  to  good. 

Artificial  language,  which  we  learn  entirely  by  imita- 
tion, diilinguifhes  us,  more  than  any  other  circumflance, 
from  the  brute  creation.  The  proper  ufe  of  it  likewife 
forms  the  chief  difference  between  one  man  and  another  ; 
for,  by  language,  one  man  difcovers  a  fuperiority  of  know- 
ledge and  of  genius,  while  others  exprefs  by  it  nothing 
but  borrowed  or  confufed  ideas.  In  an  ideot,  or  in  a 
parrot,  it  marks  only  the  moil  abject  degree  of  ftupidity. 
It  fhows  the  incapacity  of  either  to  produce  a  regular 
chain  of  thinking,  though  both  of  them  be  endowed  with 
organs  capable  of  expreffing  what  paffes  within  their 
minds.  Men  whofe  fenfes  are  delicate,  and  whofe  minds 
are  eafily  affe&ed,  make  the  bed  a&ors,  and  the  bed 
mimics.  Children,  accordingly,  are  extremely  alert 
In  imitating  the  actions,  the  geftures,  and  the  man- 
ners, of  thofe  with  whom  they  aifoci?tte.  They  are  dex- 
terous in  perceiving  ridiculous  figures  and  reprefentati- 
ons,  which  they  imitate  with  eafe  and  propriety.  Hence 
•we  perceive,  in  the  education  of  children,  the  infinite  im- 
portance of  regulating  the  principle  of  imitation. 

The  education  of  the  inferior  animals,  though  fhort,  is 
ahvays  fuccefsful.  By  imitation,  they  foon  acquire  all 
the  knowledge  pofleffed  by  their  parents.  They  not  on- 
ly derive  experience  from  their  own  feelings,  but,  by  imi- 
tation, they  learn  and  employ  the  experience  of  others. 
Young  animals  model  their  actions  entirely  upon  thofe  of 
the  old.  They  fee  their  feniors  approach  or  fly  when  they 
perceive  particular  objects,  hear  particular  founds,  or  fmell 
certain  odours.  At  firfl,  they  approach  or  fly  without  any 
other  determining  principle  but  that  of  imitation.  After- 
wards, they  approach  or  fly  fpontaneoufly,  becaufe  they 
have  then  acquired  the  habit  of  approaching  or  flying, 
whenever  they  feel  the  fame  or  fimiiar  fenfations.  Many 
inftincts,  as  terror  upon  hearing  particular  founds,  the 
appearance  of  natural  enemies,  the  fekdion  of  food,  &c. 

feem 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.        421 

feem  to  be  partly  the  effects  of  imitation.  It  is  remarked 
by  Ulloa,  that,  in  the  year  1743,  the  dogs  in  Juan  Fer- 
nandes  had  loft  the  faculty  of  barking.  When  aflbciated 
with  other  dogs,  it  was  with  great  difficulty  that  they 
again  learned,  by  imitation,  to  bark.  The  caufe  of  thefe 
dogs  lofirig  the  expreflion  of  their  ufual  language  in  a 
domeftk  flate,  it  is  not  eafy  to  inveftigate.  Perhaps,  by 
the  aid  of  experience,  and  their  own  fagacity,  they  difco- 
vered  that  barking  warned  their  prey  to  efcape  from  dan- 
ger. The  jackals,  however,  who  are  confidered  as  be- 
longing to  the  dog-kind,  not  only  hunt  in  packs,  but, 
during  the  chace,  make  a  loud  and  a  hideous  noife.  Mr. 
White,  in  his  Natural  Hiftory  of  Selborne,  a  work  which 
contains  much  information,  and  difcovers  a  good  and  be- 
nevolent heart  in  the  author,  informs  us,  that  he  had  an 
opportunity  of  feeing  two  dogs,  a  male  and  a  female, 
which  had  been  brought  from  Canton  in  China.  Thefe 
dogs,  which,  in  China,  are  fattened  for  eating,  are  about 
the  fize  of  an  ordinary  fpaniel,  and  are  of  a  pale  yellow 
colour.  c  When  taken  out  into  a  field,'  he  remarks,  '  the 
6  bitch  fhowed  fome  difpofition  for  hunting,  and  dwelt 
6  on  the  fcent  of  a  covey  of  partridges  till  me  fprung  them, 
*  giving  her  tongue  all  the  time.  The  dogs  in  South- 
4  America  are  dumb  ^  but  thefe  bark  much  in  a  fhort  thick 
c  manner,  like  foxes  ;  and  have  a  furly  favage  demeanour, 
c  like  their  anceftors,  which  are  not  domeflicated,  but 
'  bred  up  in  flies,  where  they  are  fed  for  the  table  with 
6  rice-meal,  and  other  farinaceous  food.  Thefe  dogs, 
'  having  been  taken  on  board  as  foon  as  weaned,  could 
6  not  have  learned  much  from  their  dam ;  yet  they  did 
c  not  relifh  flefh  when  they  came  to  England.  In  the 
'  iflands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  the  dogs  are  bred  upon 
6  vegetables,  and  would  not  eat  flefh  when  offered  them 
6  by  our  circumnavigators.' 

From  facts  of  this  kind,  of  which  a  great  number 
might  be  mentioned,  the  following  obfervations  naturally 
arife.  Thefe  Chinefe  dogs,  though  defcended,  probably 
for  many  generations,  from  a  race  of  anceftors  who  never 
had  the  leaft  experience  or  education  in  hunting,  preferr- 
ed their  original  inftinft  of  fcenting  and  purfuing  gamev 

The 


422  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

The  dog  is  a  grofsly  carnivorous  animal ;  for  he  prefers 
carrion  to  any  other  kind  of  nourifhment ;  yet  the  Chi- 
nefe  dogs  difcovered  no  particular  relilh  for  the  flefh  of 
animals.  Thus  it  appears,  that,  by  habits,  acquired,  not 
by  the  individual,  but  by  a  train,  of  anceftors,  both  the 
tafte  and  the  conftitution  of  animals  may  be  greatly  al- 
tered. From  the  fame  fads,  however,  it  is  equally  evi- 
dent, that  Nature  can  never  be  entirely  conquered.  The 
moment  the  Chiriefe  dogs  firft  faw  a  field,  they  both 
fcented  and  hunted  game.  Imitation  and  habit  feem  to 
have  greater  effects  upon  the  mode  of  living,  feeding,  and 
the  corporeal  fabrick,  than  upon  the  original  inftincls  of 
the  mind.  Thefe  dogs,  even  when  they  came  to  England 
after  a  long  voyage,  had  not  acquired  the  habit  of  gree- 
dily devouring,  like  other  dogs,  either  freih  meat  or  car* 
rion ;  but,  on  the  firft  opportunity  afforded  to  them,  they 
difcovered  an  inclination  to  hunt. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

Of  the  Migration  of  Animals. 


THE  Hon.  Daines  Barrington,  in  his  Effciy  on  the  Pe- 
riodical Appearing  and  Difappearing  of  certain  Birds •, 
at  different  times  of  the  year*,  has,  by  many  ingenious 
arguments,  as  well  as  curious  fads,  rendered  it  extremely 
probable,  that  no  birds,  however  ftrong  and  fwift  in  their 
flight,  can  poflibly  fly  over  fuch  large  tracts  of  the  ocean 
as  has  been  commonly  fuppofed.  He  admits  partial  mi- 
grations, or  flitting* ',  as  he  calls  them,  though  he  does  not 
attempt  to  afcertain  the  diftances  of  thefe  flittings.  With 
regard  to  the  fwallows,  of  which  there  are  feveral  fpecies 
in  Britain,  fome  naturalifts,  of  whom  the  Hon.  Daines 
Barrington  is  one,  are  inclined  to  think  that  they  do  not 

leave 

*  Phil.  Tranfaft.  vol.  62.  pag.  265,  &c.     S. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.         423 

leave  this  illand  at  the  end  of  autumn,  but  that  they  lie 
in  a  torpid  ftate  till  the  beginning  of  fummer  in  the 
banks  of  rivers,  the  hollows  of  decayed  trees,  the  recefles 
of  old  buildings,  the  holes  of  fand-banks,  and  in  iimilar 
fituations.  That  fwallows,  in  the  winter  months,  have 
fometimes,  though  very  rarely,  been  found  in  a  torpid 
ftate,  is  unqueftionably  true*  Neither  is  the  inference, 
that,  if  any  of  them  can  furvive  the  winter  in  that  ftate, 
the  whole  of  them  may  fubfift,  during  the  cold  feafon, 
in  the  fame  condition,  in  the  fmalleft  degree  unnatural. 
Still,  however,  the  numbers  of  fwallows  which  appear 
in  this  ifland,  as  well  as  in  all  parts  of  Europe,  during 
the  fummer  months,  are  fo  very  confiderable,  that,  if 
the  great  body  of  them  did  not  migrate  to  fome  other 
climate,  they  mould  be  much  more  frequently  found  in 
a  torpid  ftate.  On  the  contrary,  when  a  few  of  them 
are  difcovered  in  that  ftate,  it  is  regarded  as  a  wonder 
even  by  the  country  people,  who  have  the  greateft  oppor- 
tunities of  (tumbling  upon  facts  of  this  kind.  When, 
accordingly,  a  few  fwallows  or  martins  are  found  torpid, 
in  winter,  and  have  been  revived  by  a  gentle  heat,  the 
faft,  and  few  fuch  facts  there  are,  is  carefully  recorded 
as  fingular  in  all  the  periodical  publications  of  Europe. 

Mr.  Pennant  informs  us,  from  undoubted  authority, 
that  fome  quails,  and  other  birds  which  are  generally  fup- 
pofed  to  leave  this  ifland  in  winter,  retire  to  the  fea-coafts, 
and  pick  up  their  food  among  the  fea-weeds  *. 

4  Quails,'  Mr.  Pennant  remarks,  c  are  birds  of  paffage; 

*  fome  entirely  quitting  our  ifland,  others   fhifting  their 
c  quarters.     A  gentleman,  to  whom  this  work  lies  under 
'  great  obligations,  has  aflured  us,  that  thefe  birds  mi- 

*  grate  out  of   the  neighbouring   inland  counties,  into 
c  the  hundreds  of  Eifex  in  October,   and  continue  there 

*  all  the  winter :  If  froft  or  fnow  drive  them  out  of  the 
e  ftubble  fields  and  marines,  they  retreat  to  the  fea-fide, 
'  fhelter  themfelves  among  the  weeds,  and  live  upon  what 

*  they  can  pick  up  from  the  algae,  &c.  between  high  and 
4  low  water  mark.     Our  friend  remarks,  that  the  time 

<of 

*  Brit.  Zool.  Vol.  i.  pag.  210.  ad  edit.  8vo.    S. 


4^4  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

*  of  their  appearance  in  Effex  coincides  with  that  of  their 

*  leaving  the  inland  counties  V 

A  quail,  it  muft  be  allowed,  feems  to  be  very  much 
unqualified  for  a  long  migration ;  for  its  tail  is  fhort,  the 
bird  never  rifes  more  than  twenty  or  thirty  feet  from  the 
ground,  and  it  feldom  flies  above  three  hundred  yards  at 
a  time.  Belon,  however,  an  author  of  great  fagacity 
and  credit,  tells  us,  that,  in  his  pafiage  from  Rhodes  to 
Alexandria,  many  quails,  flying  from  north  to  fouth,  were 
taken  in  his  fhip.  From  this  circumftance,  he  remarks, 

*  I  am  perfuaded  that  they  fhift   places ;  for  formerly, 

*  when  I  failed  out  of  the  Ifle  of  Zant  to  Morea,  or  Ne- 
€  gropont,  in  the  fpring,  I  obferved  quails  flying  the  con- 
c  trary  way,  at  which  time,  alfo,  a  great  many  were  taken 
'  in  our  fhip.'    This  traverfe  they  might  be  enabled  to  ac- 
complifh  by  pafling  from  one  iiland  to  another  in  the  Me- 
diterranean. 

Inftances  of  fwallows  and  fome  other  birds  alighting 
on  the  mafts  and  cordage  of  veffels,  at  confiderable  dif- 
tances  from  any  fhore,  are  not  fo  numerous  as  might  be 
expe&ed.  Neither  have  they  been  often  obferved  flying 
over  feas  in  great  flocks.  Mr.  Peter  Collinfon,  in  a  letter 
printed  in  the  Philofophical  Tranfactions,  fays,  '  that  Sir 

*  Charles  Wager  had   frequently  informed  him,  that,  in 

*  one  of  his  voyages  home  in  the  fpring,  as  he  came  into 
c  foundings  in  our  channel,  a  great  flock  of  fwallows  al- 
4  moft  covered  his  rigging  ;  that  they  were  nearly  fpent 

*  and  famifhed,  and  were  only  feathers  and  bones  j  but, 

*  being  recruited  by  a  night's  reft,  they  took  their  flight 
4  in  the  morning.' 

M.  Adanfon,  in  his  voyage,  informs  us,  that,  about  fifty 
leagues  from  the  coaft  of  Senegal,  four  fwallows  fettled 
upon  the  fhip,  on  the  fixth  day  of  October  j  that  thefe 
birds  were  taken  ;  and  that  he  knew  them  to  be  the  true 
fwallow  .of  Europe,  which  he  conjectures  were  then  re- 
turning to  the  coaft  of  Africa.  The  Hon.  Daines  Bar- 
rington,  with  more  probability,  fuppofes  that  thefe  fwal- 
lows, inftead  of  being  on  their  paffage  from  Europe,  were 

only 

*  Brit.  Zool.  Vol.  1,  pag.  aio.  sd.  edit,  8vo,    S. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.        425 

only  flitting  from  the  Cape  de  Verde-  iflands  to  the 
continent  of  Africa,  a  much  fhorter  flight,  but  to  which 
they  feemed  to  be  unequal,  as  they  were  obliged,  from 
fatigue,  to  light  upon  the  fhip,  and  fall  into  the  hands  of 
the  failors. 

Swallows,  Mr,  Kalm  remarks,,  appear  in  the  Jerfies  a- 
bout  the  beginning  of  April.  They  are^  on  their  firfh 
arrival,  wet,  becaufe  they  havejuft  emerged  from  the  fea 
or  lakes,  at  the  bottom  of  which  they  had  remained  in  a 
torpid  (late  during  the  whole  winter.  But,  Mr.  Kalm, 
who  wifhes  to  fupport  the  torpidity  of  fwallows  during 
the  winter,  likewife  informs  us,  that  he  himfelf  met  with 
them  at  fea,  nine  hundred  and  twenty  miles  from  any 
land  *. 

Thefe,  and  fimilar  facts,  the  Hon.  Daines  Barrington 
endeavours  to  explain,  by  fuppofing  that  birds  difcovered 
In  fuch  fituations,  inftead  of  attempting  to  crofs  large 
branches  of  the  ocean,  have  been  forcibly  driven  from 
fome  coafl  by  florms,  and  that  they  would  naturally  perch 
upon  the  firfl  veffel  which  came  within  their  view. 

In  Britain,  five  fpecies  of  fwallows  appear  in  fummer 
and  difappear  in  winter,  i.  The  houfe-fwallow  makes 
its  appearance  about  twenty  days  earlier  than  the  martin, 
or  any  other  of  the  fwallow-tribe.  They  are  often  feen 
about  the  i3th  day  of  April.  They  difappear  about  the 
end  of  September.  A  few  days  previous  to  their  depar- 
ture, they  affemble  in  great  flocks  on  the  tops  of  houfes, 
churches,  and  trees,  from  whence  they  are  fuppofed  to 
take  their  flight.  This  unufual  and  temporary  affociation 
of  numbers  indicates  the  impulfe  of  fome  common  in- 
flincl  by  which  each  individual  is  actuated.  The  houfe- 
fwallow  is  eafily  diftinguifhed  from  the  other  fpecies  by 
the  fuperior  forkinefs  of  its  tail,  and  by  a  red  fpot  on 
the  forehead,  and  under  the  chin.  This  fpecies  builds  in 
chimneys,  and  makes  its  neft  of  clay,  but  leaves  the  top 
quite  open.  2.  The  martin  is  inferior  in  fize  to  the  for- 
mer, and  its  tail  is  much  lefs  forked.  The  martins  ap- 
pear in  Britain  foon  after  the  hoafe-fwallow.  They  build 
under  the  eaves  of  houfes  :  The  nefl  is  compofed  of  the 

H  h  h  fame 

*  Voy.  torn,  i.  pr.g.  24,     S. 


426  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

fame  materials  as  thofe  of  the  houfe-fwallow  ;  but  it  is  co- 
vered above,  and  a  fmall  hole  only  is  left  in  the  fide  for 
the  ingrefs  and  egrefs  of  the  birds.  The  martins  totally 
difappear  about  the  beginning  of  O&ober.  3,  The  fand- 
martin,  or.  bank-martin,  is  by  much  the  fmalleft  of  the 
fwal low-kind  that  vifit  Britain.  The  fand-martins  arrive 
very  foon  after  the  houfe-fwallow,  and  difappear  about 
Michaelmas.  They  dig  confiderable  holes  in  fand-pits 
and  in  the  banks  of  rivers,  where  they  build  their  nefts, 
"which  confift  not  of  mud,  like  thofe  of  the  former  fpecies, 
but  of  grafles  and  feathers  laid  together  in  a  very  flovenly 
manner.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  thefe  birds  do  not 
employ  the  cavities  they  dig  in  fu miner  for  winter-quar- 
ters ;  fmce  fand-banks,  fo  perforated,  have  been  carefully 
fearched  in  the  winter,  and  nothing  was  found  but  emp- 
ty nefts*.  4.  The  fwift,  or  black  martin  of  Willoughby, 
is  the  largeft  of  our  fwallows,  and  is  thelatefl  of  arriving 
in  this  country  ;  for  the  fwifts  are  feldom  feen  till  the  be- 
ginning of  May,  and  commonly  appear,  not  in  flocks,  but 
in  pairs.  Swifts,  like  the  fand-martins,  carry  on  the  bu- 
fmefs  of  incubation  in  the  dark.  They  build  in  the  cra- 
nies  of  caftles,  towers,  and  fleeples.  Straw  and  feathers 
are  the  materials  they  ufe.  They  difappear  very  early ; 
for  they  are  almoft  never  feen  after  the  middle  of  Auguft. 
5.  The  goatfucker,  which  belongs  to  the  fwallow-tribe,  is 
likewife  a  bird  of  paffage.  Like  the  other  fwallows,  it 
feeds  upon  winged  infers.  But,  inftead  of  purfuing  its 
prey  during  the  day,  it  flies  only  in  the  night,  and  feizes 
moths,  and  other  no&urnal  infe&s.  From  this  circum- 
ftance,  it  has  not  improperly  received  the  appellation  of 
the  nofturnal  fwallow.  The  goatfucker  flays  only  a  fhort 
time  in  Britain.  It  appears  not  till  about  the  end  of  May, 
and  retires  in  the  middle  of  Augufl.  It  lays  its  eggs, 
which  are  commonly  two,  and  fometimes  three,  on  the 
bare  ground. 

To  give  catalogues  of  the  numerous  birds  of  paffage 
which  frequent  this  iiland,  as  well  as  other  countries,  and 
to  mark  the  times  of  their  arrival  and  departure,  would 
be  deviating  entirely  from  our  plan.  For  circumftances 

of 

*  White's  Natural  Hiftory  of  Selbornc,  paj.  177.     S. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.        427 

of  this  kind,  the  curious  may  confult  Catefby,  Klein, 
Linnsei  Amoenitates  Academicae,  White,  &c.  But,  as 
the  periodical  appearance  and  difappearance  of  the  fwal- 
low-trioe  have  given  rife  to  different  theories  and  opinions, 
we  fhall  briefly  relate  thofe  opinions,  and  conclude  with 
fome  remarks  on  migration  in  general.  ^ 

Herodotus  and  Profper  Alpinus  mention  one  fpecies  of 
fwaiiow  which  refides  in  Egypt  during  the  whole  year  *  ; 
and  Mr.  Loten,  late  governor  of  Ceylon,  allured  Mr. 
Pennant,  that  thofe  of  Java  never  remove.  If  thefe  be 
excepted,  all  the  other  known  kinds  retreat  or  migrate 
periodically.  Swallows  migrate  from  almoft  every  climate. 
They  remove  from  Norway  f,  from  North-America  J, 
from  Kamtfchatka  §,  from  the  temperate  parts  of  Europe, 
from  Aleppo  ||,  and  from  Jamaica  ^[. 

Concerning  the  periodical  appearance  and  difappear- 
ance of  iwallows,  there  are  three  opinions  adopted  by 
different  naturaiifts.  The  firft  and  molt  probable  is,  that 
they  remove  from  climate  to  climate  at  thofe  particular 
feafons  when  winged  infecls,  their  natural  food,  fails  in 
one  country  or  diftricl:  and  abounds  in  another,  where 
they  likewife  find  a  temperature  of  air  better  fuited  to 
their  conilitutions.  In  fupport  of  this  opinion,  we  have 
the  teftimony,  as  formerly  mentioned,  of  Sir  Charles 
Wager,  of  M.  Adanfon,  and  of  many  navigators.  It  is 
equally  true,  however,  that  fome  fpecies  of  fwallows  have 
been  occafionally  found  in  a  torpid  ftate  during  winter. 
Mr.  Collinfon  gives  the  evidence  of  three  gentlemen  who 
were  eye-witneiTes  to  a  number  of  fand-rnartins  being 
drawn  out  of  a  cliff  on  the  Rhine  in  the  month  of  March 
1762**.  The  Hon.  Daines  Barrington,  in  the  year  1768, 
communicated  to  Mr.  Pennant,  on  the  authority  of  the 
late  Lord  Belhaven,  the  following  facl :  c  That  numbers 
'  of  fwallows  have  been  found  in  old  dry  walls,  and  in  fand- 
*  hills,  near  his  Lordfhip's  feat  in  Eaft-Lothian  j  not  once 

6  only, 

*  Profp.  Alp.  torn.  i.  pag.  198.     S. 
•f  Pontopp.  H  ift.  Norw.  li.  98.     S. 

t  Catefby's  Carol,  v.  1.  pag.  51.  App.  §.     S. 
$  Hift.  Kamtfchatka,  pag.  162.     S. 
H  Ruflel's  Alep.  pag.  70.     S. 

*  Phil.Tranf.  No.  36.     S. 

**  Philpfeph.  Tranfaft,  vol.  53,  pag.  101.  art,  24.     S, 


4.28  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

*  only,  but  from  year  to  year ;  and  that,  when  they  were 
*•  expofed  to  the  warmth  of  a  fire,  they  revived*/    Thefe, 
and  other  facts  of  the  fame  kind,   feem  to  be  uncontro- 
vertible;  and  Mr/Pennant  infers  from  them,  that  c  we  mult 
c  divide  our  belief  relating  to  thefe  two  Ib  different  opini- 
4  ons,  and  conclude,  that  one  part  of  the  fwallow  tribe 
6  migrate,  and  that  others  have  their  winter-quarters  near 

*  homef.'     But  we  mould  rather  incline  to  think,  with 
thofe  naturalifts  who  fuppofe  that  that  the  torpid  fwallows 
which  are  occafionally,  though  very  rarely,  difcovered  in 
the  winter  feafon,    have  been  obliged  to  remain  behind, 
becaufe  they  were  too  young,  weak,  difeafed,  or  fuperan- 
nuated,    to  undertake  a  long  and  fatiguing  flight.     Still, 
however,  that  the  torpidity  of  the  feathered  tribes  fliould 
be  folely  confined  to  the  fwallows,  is  a  very  fmgular  fact 
in  the  hiftory  of  nature.     Among  quadrupeds,  there  are 
many  fpecies  who  lie  in  a  dormant  or  torpid  ft  ate  during 
winter.     But,  if  the  fwallow  be  excepted,    not  a  fingle 
fpecies  of  birds,  notwithflanding  the  great  numbers  which, 
at  dated  times,    appear  and  disappear  in  every  corner  of 
the  globe,  has  ever  been  difcovered  in  that  ftate.     This 
circumftance  alone,    though  we  cannot  yet  afcertain  the 
precife  places  to  which  different  fpecies  of  birds  of  paf- 
fage  refort,    is  a  mo  ft  convincing  proof  of  migration  in 
general. 

It  has  been  afierted,  and  even  believed,  by  fome  natu- 
ralifts, that  fwallows  pafs  the  winter  immerfed  under  the 
ice,  at  the  bottom  of  lakes,  or  beneath  the  waters  of  the 
fea.  Olaus  Magnus,  Archbifhop  of  Upfal,  feems  to  have 
been  the  firft  who  adopted  this  opinion.  He  informs  us, 
that  fwallows  are  found  in  great  clufters  at  the  bottoms  of 
the  northern  lakes,  with  mouth  to  mouth,  wing  to  wing, 
foot  to  foot,  and  that  in  autumn  they  creep  down  the 
reeds  to  their  fubterraneous  retreats  ||.  *  That  the  good 
.*  Archbilhop,'  Mr.  Pennant  archly  remarks, » c  did  not 
c  want  credulity  in  other  inflances,  appears  from  this,  that, 

*  after  having  (locked  the  bottoms  of  the  lakes  with  birds, 

<  he 

*  Pennant's  Britifh  Zoology,  vol.  2.  pag.  250.  8vo.  edit,     S. 

-f  Ibid  251.     S. 

|  Derham's  Phyf.-Theol.  pag.  349.     S. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.        429 

*  he  ftores  the  clouds  with  mice,  which  fometimes  fall  in 
<•  plentiful  fhowers  on  Norway  and  the  neighbouring  coun- 
<  tries  1'  Klein  has  endeavoured  to  fupport  the  notion  that 
fwollows  lie  under  water  during  the  winter,    and  gives 
the  following  account  of  their  manner  of  retiring,  which 
he  coliecled  from  fome  countrymen  :    They  afferted,    he 
tells  us,  that  the  fwallows  fometimes  aflembled  in   num- 
bers on  a  reed  till  it  broke  and  funk  them  to  the  bottom  : 
That  their  immerfion  was  preceeded  by  a  kind   of  dirge, 
which  lafted  more  than  a  quarter  of  an  hour  :  That  others 
united,  laid  hold  of  a  (haw  with  their  bills,  and  plunged 
down  in  fociety  :  That  others,  by  clinging  together  with 
their  feet,  formed  a  large  mafs,  and  in  this  manner  com- 
mitted themfelves  to  the  deepf. 

Two  reafons  feem  to  render  this  fuppofed  fubmerfion 
of  fwallows  impoffible.  In  the  firfl  place,  no  land-animal 
can  exift  fo  long  without  fome  degree  of  refpiration. 
The  otter,  the  feal,  and  water  fowls  of  all  kinds,  when 
confined  under  the  ice,  or  entangled  in  nets,  foon  perifh  ; 
yet  it  is  well  known,  that  animals-  of  this  kind  can  re- 
main much  longer  under  water  than  thofe  who  are  def- 
titute  of  that  peculiar  ftrudure  of  the  heart  which  is 
neceffary  for  any  confiderable  refidence  beneath  that  pe- 
netrating element.  Mr.  John  Hunter,  in  a  letter  to  Mr. 
Pennant,  informs  us,  '  That  he  had  differed  many  fwal- 

*  lows,  but  found  nothing  in  them  different  from  other 
6  birds  as   to  the  organs  of  refpiration :  That  all   thofe 
c  animals  which  he  had   difTe&ed  of  the  clafs   that  fleep 

*  during  winter,  fuch  as  lizards,  frogs,  &c.  had  a  very 
6  different  conformation  as  to  thofe  organs  :  That  all  thofe 

*  animals,  he  believes,  do  breathe  in  their  torpid  flate ; 
'  and,  as  far  as  his  experience  reaches,  he  knows  they 
c  do  ;  and  that,  therefore,  he  efteems  it  a  very  wild  opi- 
c  nion,  that  terreflrial  animals  can  remain  any  long  time 
'  under  water  without  drowning,'     Another  argument 
againft  their  fubmerfion  arifes  from  the  fpecific   gravity 
of  the   animals   themfelves.     Of  all  birds,  the   fwallow 
tribes  are  perhaps  the  lighteft.     Their  plumage,  and  the 
comparative  fmallnefs  of  their  weight,  indicate  that  Na- 
ture 

t  JClein  Prod.  Hift.  Avium,  pag.  205—206.     S. 


430  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

ture  deftined  them  to  be  almoft  perpetually  on  the  wing 
in  queft  of  food.  From  this  fpecific  lightnefs,  the  fub- 
merfion  of  fwallows,  and  their  continuing  for  months 
under  water,  amount  to  a  phyfical  impombility.  Even 
water-fowls,  when  they  wifli  to  dive,  are  obliged  to  rife 
and  plunge  with  confiderabie  exertion,  in  order  to  over- 
come the  refiftance  of  the  water.  Klein's  idea  of  fwal- 
lows  employing  reeds  and  draws  as  means  of  fubmerfion 
is  rather  ludicrous  ;  for  thefe  light  fubftances,  inftead  of 
being  proper  indruments  for  ailifting  them  to  reach  the 
bottom,  would  infallibly  contribute  to  fupport  them  on 
the  furface,  and  prevent  the  very  objed  of  their  intention. 
Befides,  admitting  the  pombility  of  their  reaching  the 
bottom  of  lakes  and  feas,  and  fuppofmg  they  could  exift 
for  feveral  months  without  refpiration,  What  would  be 
the  confequence  ?  The  whole  would  foon  be  devoured  by 
otters,  feals,  and  fifties  of  various  kinds.  Nature  is  al- 
ways anxious  for  the  prefervation  of  fpecies.  But,  if 
the  fwallow  tribes  were  deftined  to  remain  torpid,  during 
the  winter  months,  at  the  bottom  of  lakes  and  feas,  me 
would  acl  in  oppofition  to  her  own  intentions  ;  for,  in  a 
feafon  or  two,  the  whole  genus  would  be  annihilated. 

Mr.  White  of  Selborne  has  favoured  us  with  the  fol- 
lowing information  concerning  the  migration  of  fwal- 
lows  :  '  If  ever  I  faw,'  fays  he,  c  any  thing  like  actual 

*  migration,  it  was  lad  Michaelmas  day,   1768.     I  was 

*  travelling,  and  out  early  in  the  morning  :  At  firfl  there 

*  was  a  vaft  fog  ;  but,  by  the  time  that  I  was  got  feven 
c  or  eight  miles  from   home  towards   the   coaft,  the  fun 

*  broke  out  into  a  delicate  warm  day.     We  were  then  on 

*  a  large  heath  or  common,  and  I  could  difcern,  as  the 
'  mid  began  to  break  away,  great  numbers  of  fwallows 

*  cludering  on  the  dinted  fhrubs  and   buihes,  as  if  they 
'  had  rooded  there  all  night.     As  foon  as  the  air  became 

*  clear  and  pleafant,  they  all  were  on  the  wing  at  once,  and, 
4  by  a  placid  and  eafy  flight,  proceeded  on  fouthward  to- 

*  wards  the  fea :  After  this  I  did  not  fee  any  more  flocks, 
c  only  now  and  then  a  draggler.     When  I  ufed  to  rife  in 
'  a  morning  lad  autumn,  and  fee  the  fwallows  and  mar- 
c  tins  cludering  on  the  chimneys  and  thatch  of  the  neigh- 

6  bouring 


OFNATURAL    HISTORY.        431 

4  homing  cottages,  I  could  not  help  being  touched  with 

*  fecret  delight,  mixed  with  fome  degree  of  mortification: 

*  With  delight,  to  obferve  with  how  much  ardour  and 
4  punctuality  thofe  poor  little  birds  obeyed  the  ftrong  im- 
•4  pulfe  towards  migration,  or  hiding,  imprinted  on  their 
4  minds  by  their  great  Creator ;  and  with  fome  degree  of 

*  mortification,  when  I  refle&ed,  that,  after  all  our  pains 
4  and  enquiries,  we   are  yet  not   quite  certain  to  what 
4  regions  they  do  migrate ;  and  are  ftill  farther  embar- 
4  railed  to  find,  that  fome  do  not  actually  migrate  at  all*/ 

In  another  part  of  his  work,  Mr.  White  fays :  c  But 
4  we  muft  not  deny  migration  in  general ;  becaufe  migra- 
4  tion  certainly  does  fubfift  in  fome  places,  as  my  brother 
4  in  Andalufia  has  fully  informed  me.  Of  the  motions  of 
4  thefe  birds  he  has  ocular  demonflration,  for  many  weeks 
4  together,,  both  fpring  and  fall :  During  which  periods, 
4  myriads  of  the  fwallow-kind  traverfe  the  Straits  from 
«  north  to  fouth,  and  from  fouth  to  north,  according  to 
4  the  feafon.  And  thefe  vaft  migrations  confift  not  only 
4  of  hirudines  (fwallows),  but  of  bee-birds,  hoopoes,  oro- 
4  pendulos,  or  golden-thrujhes,  &c.  &c.  and  alfo  many  of 
4  our  f oft-billed  fummer  birds  of  pajjage  ;  and,  moreover, 
4  of  birds  which  never  leave  us,  fuch  as  all  the  various 
4  forts  of  hawks  and  kites.  Old  Belon,  two  hundred  years- 

*  ag°>  g*ves  a  curious  account  of  the  incredible  armies  of 
4  hawks  and  kites,  which  he  faw  in  the  fpring-time  tra- 
4  verfing  the  Thracian  Bofphorus  from  Afia  to  Europe. 
4  Befides  the  above  mentioned,  he  remarks,  that  the  pro- 
4  ceflion  is  fwelled  by  whole  troops  of  eagles  and  vul- 

*  tures  f-' 

Mr.  White,  likewife,  with^  much  propriety,  remarks, 
that  our  inquiries  concerning  the  migration  of  birds  have 
been  too  much  confined  to  the  fwallow  tribes,  while  little 
attention  has  been  paid  to  the  fhort-winged  birds  of  paf- 
fage,  fuch  as  quails,  red-ftarts,  nightingales,  white-throats, 
black-caps,  &c.  All  thefe,  though  feemingly,  ill  qualified 
for  long  flights,  difappear  in  the  winter,  and  not  one  of 

them* 

*  White's  Natural  Hiftory  of  Selbqrr.e,  pag.  64.- 65.     &. 

*  Ibid.  pag.  139,     S. 


43* 


THE   PHILOSOPHY 


them,  notwithftanding  their  immenfe  numbers,  has  ever 
been  found  in  a  torpid  ftate. 

To  mark  the  times  of  the  arrival  and  departure  of  birds 
of  paflage  in  different  countries,  and  in  different  diftri&s 
of  the  fame  countries,  and  the  probable  motives  arifing 
from  the  ftate  of  the  country  with  regard  to  heat  and  cold, 
and  to  that  of  the  food  peculiar  to  each  kind,  would  throw 
much  light  upon  the  hiftory  of  migration.  To  Mr.  White 
of  Selborne  we  are  obliged  for  the  following  lifts  of  birds 
of  paflage  which  he  has  obferved  in  his  neighbourhood. 
Thefe  lifts  are  arranged  nearly  in  the  order  of  time. 

Lift  of  Summer  Birds  of  Paffage. 


Names. 

1.  Wryneck, 

2.  Smalleft  willow-wren, 

3.  Houfe-fwallow, 

4.  Martin, 

5.  Sand-martin, 

6.  Black-cap, 

7.  Nightingale, 

8.  Cuckoo, 

9.  Middle  willow-wren, 

10.  White-throat, 

11.  Red-flart, 

12.  Stone-curlew, 

13.  Turtle-dove, 

14.  Grafshopper  lark, 

15.  Swift. 

16.  Lefs  reed-fparrow, 

17.  Land-rail, 

1 8.  Largeft  willow- wren, 

19.  Goat-fucker,  or  fern- 
owl, 

20.  Fly-catcher, 


Ufually  appeur  about 

Middle  of  March. 

March  23. 

April  13. 

Ibid. 

Ibid. 

Ibid. 

Beginning  of  April. 

Middle  of  April. 

Ibid. 

Ibid. 

Ibid. 

End  of  March. 

Middle  of  April. 
April  27. 


End  of  April. 

Beginning  of  May. 
CMay  12.    This  is  the  lateft 
£     fummer  bird  of  paffage. 


Moft  foft-billed  birds  feed  upon  infe&s,  and  not  on 
grain  or  feeds  :  and,  therefore,  they  retire  before  winter. 

But 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.  433 

But  the  following  foft -billed  birds,  though  they  eat  infe&s, 
remain  with  us  during  the  whole  year ;  fuch  as  the  red- 
breaft  and  wren,  who  frequent  out-houfes  and  gardens 
during  the  winter,  and  eat  fpiders,  &c. ;  the  hedge-fpar- 
row,  who  frequents  finks  for  crumbs  and  other  fweepings ; 
the  white  wagtail,  the  yellow  wagtail,  and  the  grey  wag- 
tail, who  frequent  mallow  rivulets  near  the  fpring  heads, 
where  the  water  feldom  freezes,  and  feed  upon  the  aure- 
lias  of  infecls  ;  the  wheat-ear,  fome  of  which  are  to  be 
ieen  during  the  winter,  &c.  , 

Lift  of  Winter  Birds  of  Paffage  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Sel- 

borne. 

1.  The  ring-oufel  *.     This  bird  appears  about  Michael- 
mas week,  and  is  a  new  migration  lately   difcovered  by 
Mr.  White. 

2.  The  red-wing  fy  or  wind-thrum,  appears  in  Britain 
about  old  Michaelmas.     They  come  in  great  flocks  from, 
the  frozen  regions  of  the  north. 

3.  Field-fare  || .     Thefe  birds  vifit  Britain  in  immenfe 
numbers  about  Michaelmas,  and  depart  about  the  end  of 
February,  or  the  beginning  of  March.     They  pafs  the 
fuminer  in  the  northern  parts  of  Europe,  and  likewife  in 
Lower  Auftria  §.     They  breed  in  the  largefl  trees,  feed 
on  berries  of  all  kinds  ^[,  but  prefer  thofe  of  the  juniper. 
It  is  probable  that  the  field-fares  which  migrate  into  Bri- 
tain come  from  Norway  arid  the  northern  regions  of  Eu- 
rope, becaufe  we  find  that  they  both  breed  and  winter  in 
Pruftia,  Auftria**,  and  the  more  temperate  climates, 

4.  The  Royfton-crow  f  j-7  or  hooded-crow  of  our  coun- 
tryman Sir  Robert  Sibbald,  is  likewife  a  bird  of  pafiage. 
It  vifits  us  in  the  beginning  of  winter,  and  departs  with 
the  wood-cocks.     They  frequent  the  inland  as  well  as  the 
maritime  parts  of  Britain.     When  near  the  coafts,  they 
feed  upon  crabs,  mufcles,  and  other  mell-fifhes.     They 
breed  in  Sweden,  build  their  nefts  in  trees,  and  lay  four 

I  i  i  eggs. 

*  Turd  us  torquatus.  f  Turdus  iliacus, 

j|  Turdus /*7;zra.  ^  Kramer  Elench.  pag.  361.     S. 

5  Linn.  Faun.  Suec.  fp.  78.-  S.  **  Klein  Hift.  Avium.  pag.  178,     S.    ' 

ft  Corvus  Ccrnix, 


434  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

eggs  *.     They   iikewife  breed  in  the  fouthern  parts  of 
Germany,  and  particularly  on  the  banks  of  the  Danube  f . 

5.  The  wood-cock  ||    appears    in  this   country  about 
old   Michaelmas.     During  the  fummer,   wood-cocks  in- 
habit   the   Alps  §,  Norway,   Sweden^]",  and  the   north- 
ern parts  of  Europe.     From  thefe  countries  they  retire  as 
foon  as  the  froft  commences,  which  obliges  them  to  mi- 
grate into  milder  climates,  where  the  foil  is  open,  and 
more  adapted  to  their  mode  of  feeding ;  for  they  live  on 
worms,  which   they  fearch  for  with  their  long  bills  in 
foft  and  moid  grounds  in  the  midft  of  woods.     Wood- 
cocks, taking  the  advantage  of  the  night,  or  of  foggy 
weather,  arrive  here  in  flocks :  But  they  foon  feparate  ; 
and,  before  returning  to  their  fummer  quarters,  they  pair. 
They  fly  and  feed  during  the  night.     They  begin  their 
flight  in  the  evening,  and  return  to  their  retreats  in  the 
glades  when  day  commences.     They  depart  from  Britain 
about  the  end  of  February  or  the  beginning  of  March. 
Some   of  them,   however,  like   the   {haggling   fwallows, 
have  been  known  to  breed,  and  to  remain  here,  during 
the  whole  year  **.     It  is  Iikewife  known  that  wood-cocks 
migrate  from  France,  Germany,  and  Italy,  and  that  they 
make  choice  of  cold  northern  climates  for  their  fummer 
r.efidence.     About  the  end  of  October  they  vifit  Burgun- 
dy, but  remain  there  four  or  five  weeks  only  j  becaufe  it 
is  a  dry  country,  and,  on  the  nrft  frofts,  they  are  obliged 
to  retire  for  want  of  luftenance.     In  the  winter  they  are 
found  as  far  fouth  as  Smyrna,  Aleppo  ||,  and  Barbary  JJ. 
They  are  even  very  common  in  Japan  §§. 

6.  Themipe||||.     Snipes  are  enrolled  as  birds  of  paflage 
by  Mr.  White,  though  he  acknowledges  that  fome  of  them 
conftantly  breed  in  England.     c  In  winter,'  Mr.  Pennant 
remarks,  c  fnipes    are  very  frequent  in  all  our  mar  my 
4  and  wet  grounds,  where  they  lie  concealed  in  the  rufhes, 

<&c. 

*  Linn.  Faun.  Susc.  fp.  88.    S.        f  Kramer,  pag.  333.     S. 

||  Scolopax  Rvjlicola.  §  Willoughby's  Ornithology,  pag.  290.    S. 

5  M.  de  Gcer's  and  Dr.  Wallerius's  letters  to  Mr.  Pennant.     S. 

**  Pennant's  Biitifh  Zoology,  vol.  2.  pag.  349.  8vo.     S. 

if  RuiTcl's  Hiftory  of  Aleppo,  pag.  64.     S. 

Shaw's  Travel's,  pag.  253.     S. 

Kzunpfei's  Hi 3.  Japan,  vol.  i.  pag.  129.     S. 

Scolopax  Gailinago. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          435 

«  &c.  In  the  fummer  they  difperfe  to  different  ^parts,  and 
c  are  found  in  the  midft  of  our  higheft  mountains  as  well 
c  as  our  low  moors.  Their  neft  is  made  of  dried  grafs. 

*  They  lay  four  eggs  of  a  dirty  olive  colour,  marked  with 

*  dulky  fpots.     Their  young  are  fo  often  found  in  Eng- 

*  land,  that  we  doubt  whether  they  ever  entirely  leave 
c  this  ifiand  V 

7.  The  jack-fnipe.     This  bird,  which  is  very  common 
in  Scotland,  and  frequents  the  banks  of  rivers  and  lakes, 
is  ranked  by  Mr.  White  as  a  winter  bird  of  paffage,  with- 
out mentioning  either  the  time  of  its  arrival  or  departure  j 
and  Mr.  Pennant  is  entirely  filent  on  the  fubjecl  f. 

8.  The  wood-pigeon.     Mr.  White,  without  mention- 
ing either  the  time  of  their  appearing  or   difappearing, 
tells  us,  that  c  they  feldoin  appear  till  late ;  nor  in  fuch 
6  plenty  as  formerly  J.' 

9.  The  wild  fwan  ||.     During  hard  winters,  this  bird 
frequents  the  coafts  of  Britain  in  large  flocks ;  but  from 
any  information  we  have  been  able  to  obtain,  it  does  not 
breed  in  our  iiland.     Martin  in  his  Hiftory  of  the  He- 
brides, or  Weflern  ifles  §,  informs  us,  that   wild  fwans 
arrive  in  great  numbers  in  Lingey,  one  of  the  Hebrides; 
in  the  month  of  October,  and  remain  there  till  March, 
when  they  retire  more  northward  to   breed.     For   this 
purpofe,  the  fwans,  like  moll  other  water-fowls,  prefer 
fuch  places  as  are  lead  frequented  by  mankind.     During 
fummer,  the  lakes,  marines,  and  for  efts   of  Lapland  are 
filled  with  myriads  of  water-fowls.     In  that  northern  re- 
gion, fwans,  geefe,    the  duck-tribe,  goofanders,  divers, 
&c.  pafs  the  fummer ;  but  in  autumn  they  return  to  us, 
and  to  other  more  hofpitable  ihores  ^[. 

10.  The  wild  goofe.  The  wild  geefe,  it  is  probable, 
breed  in  the  retired  regions  of  the  north.  They  arrive 
here,  in  the  beginning  of  winter,  and  frequently  feed  on 

our 

*  Pennant's  Britifh  Zoology,  vol.  2.  pag.  358.  8vo.     S. 

t  White's  Natural  Hittory  of  Selborne,  pag.  117.  and  Pennant's  Britifti  Zoo* 
logy,  vol.  2.  pag.  359.  8vo.     S. 

J.  White's  Natural  Hiftory  of  Selborne,  pag.  117.     S. 
. .  |i  Anas  Cyg.nus  ferus. 

\  Defcripnon  of  the  Weftern  Ifles,  pag.  71.     S. 

it  Linn.   Flora  Lapponica,  T>af?,  273.     Oeuvres  de  Mauocrtuis,  torn.  3.  pa?, 
141;    S.- 


436  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

our  corn  grounds.  They  fly  at  a  great  heighth,  and  ob- 
ferve  regularity  in  their  movements.  They  fome  times 
form  a  ftraight  line  ;  and,  at  others,  they  aflume  ihe  ihape 
of  a  wedge,  which  facilitates  their  progrefs  through  the 
refitting  air. 

With  regard  to  the  wild-d1  ck,  pochard,  wigeon,  and 
teal,  though  Mr.  White  places  them  in  the  lift  of  birds 
of  paifage,  he  does  not  mention  either  the  times  of  their 
arrival  or  departure.  Though  it  be  probable  that  moft 
of  the  duck-kind  migrate,  yet  it  is  certain,  that  fome  in- 
dividuals of  different  fpecies  of  them  breed  in  this  coun- 
try, and  continue  in  it  during  the  whole  year.  As  to 
'the  duck-kind  in  general,  Mr.  Pennant  remarks :  4  Of 
4  the  numerous  fpecies  that  form  this  genus,  we  know 
'  of  no  more  than  five  that  breed  here.  The  tame  fiuan 
4  and  tame  goofe,  the  Shield  duck,  the  eider  duck,  and  a 
c  very  fmall  portion  of  the  wild  ducks.  The  reft  contri- 
4  bute  to  form  that  amazing  multitude  of  water-fowl  that 
4  annually  repair  from  moft  parts  of  Europe  to  the  v/oods 
4  and  lakes  of  Lapland,  and  other  Arctic  regions  *,  there 
c  to  perform  the  functions  of  incubation  and  nutrition  in 
*•  full  fecurity.  They  and  their  young  quit  their  retreat 
c  in  September,  and  difperfe  themfelves  over  Europe, 
c  With  us  they  make  their  appearance  the  beginning  of 
6  October,  circulate  firit  round  our  fiiores,  and,  when 
6  compelled  by  fevere  froft,  betake  themfelves  to  our 
6  lakes  and  rivers  -(-.' 

In  \vinter,  the  bernacles,  or  brent-ducks,  appear  in  vaft 
flocks  on  the  north-weft  coafts  of  Britain.  They  are 
very  fhy  and  wild ;  but,  when  taken,  they  foon  grow  as 
familiar  as  our  domeftic  ducks.  They  leave  the  Britifh 
ihores  in  February;  and  migrate  as  far  as  Lapiand,  Green- 
land, and  even  Spitfbergen  J. 

The  fclan-geefe,  or  gannets,  are  iikcv.ife  birds  of  paf- 
fage.  They  frequent  the  iile  of  Ailfay,  near  the  Frith  of 
Clyde  ;  the  rocks  adjacent  to  St..  Kilda,  the  moft  remote 
of  the  Hebrides  ;  the  Skelig  ifles,  off  the  coaft  of  Kerry  ; 

and 

*  Colleft.  Voyag.  Dutch  Had  India  Company,  8vo,  1703.  pag.  19.    Ciufii  Exot. 
pag.  368.     S. 

i  I3eiinant's  Britifli  Zoology,  vol.  2.  pa^.  ,519. — 520.     S. 

|  Linn.  A;noen.  Acad.  too.  4.  pag.  ,58,5.     Barent's  Voyage,  pag.  19^    S. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          437 

and  the  Bafs-ifle  in  the  Frith  of  Forth.  The  multitudes 
which  frequent  thefe  places  are  prodigious.  To  give  an 
idea  of  their  numbers,  the  reader  will  not  be  difpleafed  to 
fee  Dr.  Harvey's  fhort  account  of  the  Bafs.  4  There  is  a 
4  fmall  ifland  in  the  Frith  of  Forth,  called  the  Bafs-l/land9 
4  which  does  not  exceed  a  mile  in  circumference.  .The 
4  furface  of  this  ifland,  during  the  months  of  May  and 
4  June,  is  fo  entirely  covered  with  riefts,  eggs,  and  young 
c  birds,  that  it  is  fcarcely  poffible  to  walk  without  treading 
4  on  them.  The  flocks  of  birds  on  the  wing  are  fo  prodi- 
4  gious,  that  they  darken  the  air  like  clouds,  and  their 
4  noife  is  fo  great,  that  a  man  cannot  without  difficulty 
4  hear  his  neighbour's  voice.  If,  from  the  top  of  the 
4  precipice,  you  look  down  upon  the  lea,  you  will  fee  it 
4  on  every  fide  covered  with  infinite  numbers  of  birds  of 

*  different  kinds,  fwimming  about  and  hunting  for  their 
4  prey.     When  failing  round  the  ifland,  if  you  furvey  the 

*  hanging  cliffs,  you  will  perceive,  in  every  cragg,  or  fif- 
4  fure  of  the  rocks,  innumerable  birds  of  various  kinds, 
4  more  than  the  flars  of  heaven  in  a  ferene  night.-    If  yen 
4  view  the  diftant  flocks,  either  flying  to  or  from  the  ifland, 
4  you  will  imagine  them  to  be  a  vail  fwarm  of  bees*/ 
The  rocks  of  St.  Kilda  feern  to  be  equally  frequented  by 
folan  geefe ;  for  Martin,  in  his  defcription  of  the  He- 
brides, informs   us,  that    the   inhabitants    of  this  fmall 
ifland  confurne  annually  no  lefs  than  22,600  young  birds 
of  this  fpecies,  befide  an  amazing  number  of  their  eggs. 
The  folan  geefe  and  their  eggs  constitute  the  chief  food  of 
thefe  iflanders.     They  preferve  both  the  fowls  and  the 
eggs  in  fmall  pyramidal  (lone  buildings,  which,  to   pro- 
ted  the  food  from  moiflure,  they  cover  with  the  afhes  of 
turf.     The  folan  geefe  are  birds  of  pafTage.     Their  fir  ft' 
appearance  is  in  March,  and  they  continue  till  Auguft  or 
September.     But,  in  general,  the  times  of  their  breeding 
and  departure  feem  to  coincide  with  the  arrival  of  the 
herring",  and  the  migration  of  that  fifh  from  our  ccafis. 
It  is  more  than  probable  that  thefe  birds  attend  the  her- 
rings and  pilchards  during  their  whole  circuit  round  the 
Britifh  iflands  ;  for  the  appearance  of  the  fohn  geefe  is 

a!  \vays 

*  Harvey  de  Genorat.  Aniaaal.  Excrcii.   it.     S 


438  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

always  efleemed  by  the  fifhermen  as  a  certain  prefage  of 
the  approach  of  the  herrings  or  pilchards.  In  queft  of 
food,  thefe  birds  migrate  as  far  fouth  as  the  mouth  of 
the  Tagus  ;  for  they  are  frequently  feen  oif  Liibon  dur- 
ing the  month  of  December. 

The  crofs-beak,  the  crofs-bill,  and  the  filk-tail,  are  like- 
wife  enumerated  by  Mr.  White  as  birds  of  paflage.  '  But 

*  thefe,'  fays  he,  '  are  only  wanderers  that  appear  occa- 

*  fionally,   and    are   not  obfervant  of   any    regular   mi- 

*  gration  V 

The  long-legged  plover,  and  fanderling,  vifit  us  in  win- 
ter only ;  and  it  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  every  fpecies 
of  the  curlews,  wood-cocks,  fand-pipers,  and  plovers  f , 
which  forfake  us  in  the  fpring,  retire  to  Sweden,  Poland, 
Pruffia,  Norway,  and  Lapland,  both  to  feed  and  to  breed. 
They  return  to  us  as  foon  as  the  young  are  able  to  fly ; 
becaufe  the  frofts,  which  fet  in  early  in  thefe  countries, 
totally  deprive  them  of  the  means  of  fubfiftence.  For 
the  fame  reafon  they  leave  us  in  fummer,  as  the  drynefs 
and  hardnefs  of  the  ground  prevent  them  from  penetrat- 
ing the  earth  with  their  bills  in  queft  of  worms,  which 
conftitute  the  natural  food  of  thefe  birds. 

From  the  facts  which  have  been  enumerated,  and  from 
others  of  a  fimilar  nature,  it  is  evident,  that  many  birds, 
both  of  the  land  and  water  kinds,  migrate  from  one  cli- 
mate to  another.  But,  even  in  the  fame  climate  and  coun- 
try, birds  occafionally  perform  partial  migrations.  Dur- 
ing hard  winters,  when  the  furface  of  the  earth  is  cover- 
ed with  fnow,  many  birds,  as  larks,  fnipes,  &c.  retire 
from  the  inland  parts  of  the  country  to  the  fea-fhores, 
where  they  pick  up  a  fcanty  fubfiftence.  Others,  as  the 
•wren,  the  red-breaft,  and  many  of  the  fmall  birds,  or 
fparrow-kind,  refort  to  gardens,  and  the  habitations  of 
men.  Their  intention,  it  is  obvious,  is  to  procure  food 
and  fheltere 

There  are  three  principal  objects  of  migration  :  Food, 
temperature  of  air,  and  convenient  fituations  for  breeding. 
Such  birds  as  migrate  to  great  diftances  are  alone  deno- 
minated 

*  White's  Natural  Hiftory  of  Selborne,  pag.  118.     S. 

•f  Linn.  Amoen.  Acad,  torn.  4.  pag.  $88.  Klein de  AviumMigrat.  pag.  187.  S. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          439 

minated  birds  of  paffage.  But  all  birds  are,  in  fome  mea- 
fure,  birds  of  paifage,  though  they  do  not  migrate  to  pla- 
ces fo  remote  from  their  former  abodes.  At  particular 
times  of  the  year,  mod  birds  migrate  from  one  country 
to  another,  or  from  the  more  inland  diftricts  toward  the 
mores.  Thefe  partial  migrations  of  fmall  birds  are  well 
known  to  bird-catchers,  who  make  a  livelihood  by  en- 
fnaring  them  into  their  nets,  and  felling  them.  The  birds 
Jly9  as  the  bird-catchers  term  it,  about  the  end  of  Sep- 
tember, and  during  the  months  of  October  and  Novem- 
ber. There  is  another,  but  lefs  confiderable,  flight  in 
March.  Some  begin  their  flight  annually  about  Michael- 
mas ;  others,  as  the  wood-larks,  fucceed,  and  continue 
their  flight  till  the  middle  of  October  ;  but  the  green- 
finch does  not  migrate  till  the  frod:  obliges  it  to  remove 
in  queft  of  food  and  ihelter.  Thefe  partial  migrations, 
or  Sittings,  are  performed  from  day-break  till  noon.  An- 
other, but  fmalier,  flight  commences  at  two  o'clock,  and 
continues  till  night  approaches.  The  times  when  parti- 
cular birds  migrate  from  one  fituation  to  another  are  well 
known  to  the  bird-catchers,  who,  by  means  of  call-birds, 
nets,  and  other  devices,  feize  great  numbers  of  them, 
and,  after  accuftoming  them  for  fome  time  to  reftraint  and 
flavery,  fell  them,  for  confiderable  prices,  to  curious  men 
and  whimfical  women.  A  diligent  attention  to  thefe  par- 
tial migrations,  and  their  motives,  would  foon  unfold  the 
caufes  of  thofe  of  a  more  extenfive  kind. 

Migration  is  generally  fuppofed  to  be  peculiar  to  the 
feathered  tribes.  This  is  a  limited  idea,  which  has  ori- 
ginated from  inattention  to  the  ceconomy  of  nature. 
Birds  migrate  with  a  view  to  remedy  the  inconveniencies 
of  their  prefent  fituation,  and  to  acquire  a  more  commo-- 
dious  ftation  with  regard  to  food,  temperature,  genera- 
tion, and  fhelter.  From  fimilar  motives,  men,  fometimes 
in  amazing  multitudes,  have  migrated  from  north  to 
fouth,  difplaced  the  native  inhabitants,  and  fixed  eftab- 
lifhments  in  more  comfortable  climates  than  thofe  which 
they  had  relinquifhed.  Thefe,  in  their  turn,  have  fallen 
victims  to  frelh  and  barbarous  emigrants.  Among  the  in- 
habitants of  the  more  northern  nations,  as  Norway,  Swe- 
den, 


440  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

den,  Scotland,  &c.  notwithstanding  a  very  flrong  attach- 
ment to  their  native  countries,  there  feems  to  be  a  natural 
or  inftin&ive  propenfity  to  migrate.  Poverty,  the  rigc;ur 
of  climare,  curiofuy,  ambition,  the  falfe  representations 
of  intereded  indh'i'duals.  the  cppreffion  of  feudal  barons, 
and  fmiiiar  circuniflances,  have  of  late  given  rife  to  great 
emigrations  of  the  human  fpecies.  But,  it  is  worthy  of 
remark,  that  the  emigrations  from  fouth  to  north,  except 
from  the  lo've  of  conqueft  in  ambitious  nations,  are  fo 
rare,  that  the  inftinc~t  feems  hardly  to  exifh  in  thofe  more 
fortunate  climates.  Curiofity  is. a  general  inftindive  prin- 
ciple, which  operates  flrongly  in  the  youthful  periods 
life,  and  Simulates  every  man  to  vifit  places  that  are  c 
tant  from  his  ordinary  refidence.  This  innate  defire  is 
influenced  by  the  relations  of  travellers,  and  by  many 
other  incentives  of  a  more  interefled  kind.  Without  the 
principle  of  migration,  mankind,  it  is  probable,  would 
never  have  been  fo  univerfally  cliffufed  over  the  furface  of 
the  earth.  It  is  counterbalanced,  however,  by  attachment 
to  thofe  countries  which  gave  us  birth,  a  principle  ilill 
more  powerful  and  efficient.  Love  of  our  native  coun- 
try is  fo  ftrong,  that,  after  gratifying  the  migrating  prin- 
ciple, almofl  every  man  feels  a  longing  defire  to  return. 

Savages,  as  long  as  their  (lore  of  food  remains  unex- 
haufled,  continue  in  a  liftlefs  inactive  ilate.  They  exhaufl 
many  days  fitting  in  perfect  indolence,  and  feem  not  to 
be  prompted  by  any  motives  of  curiofity.  They  have 
not  a  conception  of  a  man's  walking  either  for  amufe- 
ment  or  exercife.  Bi:t,  when  their  provifions  begin  to 
fail,  an  aftonilhing  reverfe  takes  place.  They  then  roufe 
as  from  a  profound  ileep.  In  quell  of  wild  beads,  birds, 
and  fifties,  they  migrate  to  immenfe  diuances,  exert  the 
greateft  feats  of  activity,  and  undergo  incredible  harci- 
ihips  and  fatigue.  After  acquiring  a  ftore  of  provifionsV 
they  return  to  their  wonted  haunts,  and  remain  inactive 
till  their  food  again  begins  to  fail. 

Quadrupeds  likewife  perform  partial  migrations.  At 
the  approach  of  winter,  the  flag,  the  rein-deer,  and  the 
roebuck,  leave  the  tops  of  the  lofty  mountains,  and  come 
down  to  the  plains  and  copfes.  Their  chief  objects,  in 

thefe 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.        441 

thefe  Sittings,  are  food  and  ihelter.  When  fummer  com- 
mences, they  are  harraffed  with  different  fpecies  of  winged 
infecls,  and,  to  avoid  thefe  enemies,  they  regain  the  fum- 
mits  of  the  mountains,  where  the  cold  and  the  heighth 
of  the  fituation  protect  them  from  the  attacks  of  the  flies- 
In  Norway,  and  the  more  northern  regions  of  Europe, 
the  oxen,  during  the  winter,  migrate  to  the  fliores  of  the 
fea,  where  they  feed  upon  fea-piants  and  the  bones  of 
fifties ;  and  Pontoppidan  remarks,  that  the  cattle  know 
by  inftincl:  when  the  tide  retires,  and  leave  thefe  articles 
of  food  upon  the  ihore.  In  Orkney  and  Shetland,  the 
fheep,  in  winter,  for  the  fame  purpofes,  uniformly  repair 
to  the  fhore  at  the  ebbing  of  the  tides.  Rats,  particu- 
larly thofe  of  the  northern  regions  of  Europe,  appear, 
from  time  to  time,  in  fuch  myriads,  that  the  inhabitants 
of  Norway  and  Lapland  imagine  the  animals  fall  from 
heaven.  The  celebrated  Linnseus,  who  paid  great  atten- 
,tion  to  the  ceconomy  of  thefe  migrating  rats,  remarked, 
that  they  appeared  in  Sweden  periodically  every  eighteen 
or  twenty  years.  When  about  to  migrate,  they  leave 
their  wonted  abodes,  and  aifemble  together  in  numbers 
inconceivable.  In  the  courfe  of  their  journey,  they  make 
tracks  in  the  earth  of  two  inches  in  depth ;  and  thefe 
tracks  fometimes  occupy  a  breadth  of  feveral  fathoms. 
What  is  fmgular,  the  rats,  in  their  march,  uniformly 
purfue  a  ftraight  line,  unlefs  they  are  forced  to  turn  aftde 
hy  fome  unfurmountable  obftacle.  If  they  meet  with  a 
rock,  they  firft  try  to  pierce  it,  and,  after  difcovering  the 
attempt  to  be  impracticable,  they  go  round  it,  and  then 
refume  the  ftraight  line.  Even  a  lake  does  not  interrupt 
their  paffage  ;  for  they  either  traverfe  it  in  a  ftraight  line 
or  perifh  in  the  attempt ;  and,  if  they  meet  with  a  bark 
or  other  veflel,  they  do  not  alter  their  direction,  but  climb 
up  the  one  fide  of  it  and  defcend  by  the  other. 

Frogs,  immediately  after  their  transformation  from  the 
tadpole  flate,  leave  the  water,  and  migrate  to  the  mea- 
dow or  marfhy  grounds  in  queft  of  infecls.  The  num- 
bers of  young  frogs,  which  fuddenly  make  their  appear- 
ance in  the  plains,  induced  Rondeletius,  and  many  other 
naturalifts,  to  imagine  that  they  were  generated  in  the 

K  k  k  clouds 


44*  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

clouds  and  fhowered  down  upon  the  earth.  But  if,  like 
the  worthy  and  intelligent  Dr.  Derham,  they  had  exa- 
mined the  fituation  of  the  place  with  regard  to  flagnating 
waters,  and  attended  to  the  nature  and  transformation  of 
the  animals,  they  would  foon  have  difcovered  the  real 
caufe  of  the  phenomenon. 

Of  all  migrating  animals,  particular  kinds  of  fifties 
make  the  lon-geft  journies,  and  in  the  greatefl  numbers. 
The  multiplication  of  the  fpecies,  and  the  procuring  of 
food,  are  the  principal  motives  of  the  migration  of  fifties. 
The  falmon,  a  fifh  which  makes  regular  migrations,  fre- 
quents the  northern  regions  alone.  It  is  unknown  in  the 
Mediterranean  fea,  and  in  the  rivers  which  fall  into  it 
both  from  Europe  and  Africa.  It  is  found  in  fome  of 
the  rivers  of  France  that  empty  themfelves  into  the  oce- 
an *.  Salmons  are  taken  in  the  rivers  of  Kamtfchatka  f , 
and  appear  as  far  north  as  Greenland.  Salmons  live  botrr 
in  the  ocean  and  in  frefh  waters.  For  the  purpofe  of  de~ 
pofiting  their  fpawn,  they  quit  the  fea  in  the  month  of 
September,  and  afcend  the  riv.ers.  So  ftrong  is  the  in- 
flincT:  of  migrating,  that  they  prefs  up  the  rivers  with 
amazing  keennefs,  and  fcarcely  any  obftacle  is  fufficient 
to  interrupt  their  progrefs.  They  fpring,  with  great  agi- 
lity, over  catara&s  of  feveral  feet  in  heighth.  In  their 
leaps,  they  fpring  ftraight  up  with  a  ftrong  tremulous 'mo- 
tion, and  do  not,  as  has  been  vulgarly  fuppofed,  put  their 
tails  in  their  mouths.  When  they  find  a  place  which  they 
think  proper  for  depofiting  their  eggs,  the  male  and  fe- 
male unite  their  labours  in  forming  a  convenient  recep- 
tacle for  the  fpawn  in  the  fand,  which  is  generally  about 
eighteen  inches  deep.  In  this  hole  the  female  depofits  her 
eggs,  arid  the  male  his  milt,  which  they  are  laid  to  cover 
carefully  with  their  tails ;  for,  after  fpawning,  their  tails 
are  deprived  of  fkin>  The  eggs,  when  not  disturbed  by 
violent  floods,.  He  buried  in  the  fand  till  the  fpring,  and 
they  are  hatched  about  the  end  of  March.  The  parents, 
however*  after  this  important  office  has  been  performed, 
haften  back  to  the  fea,  in  order  to  cleanfe  themfelves, 
and  to  recover  their  ftrength.  Toward  the  end  of  March, 

the 

*  Rondclet.  de  Fluviat.  pag.  167.-    S.         t  Hift,  Kamtfchatka,  paj,  143.    S. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          443 

the  young  fry  begin  to  appear,  and  they  gradually  increafe 
in  fize  till  they  acquire  the  length  of  four  or  five  inches, 
and  are  then  called  f melts,  or  J "moults  *.  About  the  begin- 
ning of  May,  all  the  confiderable  rivers  -of  Scotland  are 
full  of  falmon-fry.  After  this  period,  they  migrate  to 
the  fea.  About  the  middle  of  June,  the  earlieit  of  the 
fry  begin  to  appear  again  in  the  rivers.  At  that  time 
they  are  from  twelve  to  fixteen  inches  long,  and  gradu- 
ally augment,  both  in  number  and  fize,  till  about  the  end 
of  July  or  the  beginning  of  Auguft,  when  they  weigh 
from  fix  to  nine  pounds.  This  is  a  very  rapid  growth. 
$ut  a  gentleman  of  credit  at  Warrington  informed  Mr. 
Pennant  of  a  growth  {till  more  rapid.  A  falmon,  weigh- 
ing feventeen  pounds  and  three  quarters,  was  taken  on  the 
feventh  day  of  February.  It  was  marked  on  the  back, 
fin,  and  tail,  with  fciflars,  and  then  turned  into  the  river. 
It  was  retaken  on  the  i7th  day  of  the  following  month 
of  March,  and  then  it  weighed  feventeen  pounds  and  a 
half.  The  feafon  for  fifhing  falmon  in  the  Tweed  begins 
on  the  3oth  of  November,  and  ends  on  old  Michaelmas 
day.  In  that  fmgle  river,  it  is  computed  that  no  lefs  than 
208,000,  at  a  medium,  are  annually  caught,  which,  to- 
gether with  the  produces  of  many  other  rivers  on  both 
fides  of  Scotland,  not  only  afford  a  wholefome  and  pala- 
table food  to  the  inhabitants,  but  form  no  inconfiderable 
article  of  commerce. 

Herrings  are  likewife  actuated  by  the  migrating  prin- 
ciple. Thefe  fifhes  are  chiefly  confined  to  the  northern  and 
temperate  regions  of  the-globe.  They  frequent  the  higheft 
latitudes,  and  are  fometimes  found  on  the  northern  coafts  of 
France.  They  appear  in  vafl  fhoals  on  the  coaft  of  America, 
as  far  fouth  as  Carolina.  In  Chefapeak  Bay  there  is  an  an- 
nual inundation  of  herrings ;  and  Mr.  Catefby  informs 
us,  that  they  cover  the  mores  in  fuch  amazing  numbers 
as  to  become  offenfive  to  the  inhabitants.  The  great  win- 
ter rendezvous  of  the  herrings  is  within,  or  near,  the 
Arctic  Circle,  where  they  remain  feveral  months,  and  ac- 
quire ftrength  after  being  weakened  by  the  fatigues  of 

fpawning, 

*  See  an  account  of  the  Salmon  Fifhery  on  the  River  Tweed,  communicated 
to  Mr.  Pennant  by  Mr.  Potts,  Brit.  Zool.  yol,  3.  pag.  241.  8vo.  edit.     S. 


444  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

fpawning,  and  of  a  long  migration.  In  thefe  feas,  infed 
food  is  much  more  abundant  than  in  warmer  latitudes. 
They  begin  their  migration  fouthward  in  the  fpring,  and 
appear  off  the  Shetland  iflands  in  the  months  of  April  and 
May.  Thefe,  however,  are  only  the  forerunners  of  the  im- 
menfe  fhoal  which  arrives  in  June.  Their  approach  is  recog- 
nifed  by  particular  figns,  fuch  as  the  appearance  of  certain 
fifties,  the  vaft  number  of  birds,  as  gannets  or  folan  geefe, 
which  follow  the  fhoal  to  prey  upon  the  herrings.  But, 
when  the  main  body  arrives,  its  breadth  and  depth  are 
fo  great  as  to  change  the  appearance  of  the  ocean  itfelf. 
The  fhoal  is  generally  divided  into  columns  of  five  or  fix 
miles  in  length,  and  three  or  four  in  breadth.  Their 
progreflive  motion  creates  a  kind  of  rippling  or  fmall  un- 
dulations in  the  water.  They  fometimes  fink  and  dif- 
appear  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes,  and  then  rife  again  to- 
ward the  furface.  When  the  fun  fhines,  a  variety  of 
Iplendid  and  beautiful  colours  are  refle&ed  from  their 
bodies.  In  their  progrefs  fouthward,  the  firft  interrup- 
tion they  meet  with  is  from  the  Shetland  iflands.  Here 
the  fhoal  divides  into  two  branches.  One  branch  fkirts 
the  eaflern,  and  the  other  the  weitern  fhores  of  Great- 
Britain,  and  iill  every  bay  and  creek  with  their  numbers. 
Thofe  which  proceed  to  the  weft  from  Shetland,  after 
vifiting  the  Hebrides,  where  the  great  fifhery  is  carried 
on,  move  on  till  they  are  again  interrupted  by  the  north 
of  Ireland,  which  obliges  them  to  divide  a  fecond  time. 
One  divifion  takes  to  the  weft,  where  they  are  fcarcely 
perceived,  being  foon  loft  in  the  immenfity  of  the  Atlan- 
tic Ocean.  The  other  divifion  goes  into  the  Irifh  Sea, 
and  affords  nourifhment  to  many  thoufands  of  the  human 
race.  The  chief  object  of  herrings  migrating  fouthward 
is  to  cfepofit  their  fpawn  in  warmer  and  more  fhallow 
feas  than  thofe  of  the  Frigid  Zone.  This  inftincl:  feems 
not  to  be  prompted  by  a  fcarcity  of  food  ;  for,  when  they 
arrive  upon  our  coafts,  they  are  fat  and  in  fine  condition  ; 
but,  wlien  returning  to  the  ocean,  they  are  weak  and 
emaciated.  They  continue  in  perfection  from  the  end 
of  June  to  the  beginning  of  winter,  when  they  begin  to 
depofit  their  fpawn.  The  great  ftations  of  the  herring 

fifheries 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.        445 

fifheries  are  off  the  Shetland  and  the  weftern  iflands,  and 
along  the  coaft  of  Norfolk. 

Befide  falmons  and  herrings,  there  are  many  fifties 
which  obferve  a  regular  migration,  as  mackarels,  lam- 
preys, pilchards,  &c.  About  the  middle  of  July,  the 
pilchards,  which  are  a  fpecies  of  herrings,  though  fmal- 
ler,  appear  in  vaft  fhoals  off  the  coafts  of  Cornwall. 
When  winter  approaches,  like  the  herrings,  they  retire 
to  the  Ardic  feas.  Though  fo  nearly  allied  to  the  her- 
ring, it  is  not  incurious  to  remark,  that  the  pilchards, 
in  their  migration  for  the  purpofe  of  fpawning,  choofe 
a  warmer  latitude  ;  for,  off  the  coafts  of  Britain,  the 
great  fhoals  never  appear  farther  north  than  the  county 
of  Cornwall  and  the  Scilly  iflands.  Dr.  Borlafe,  in  his 
hiftory  of  Cornwall,  gives  the  following  account  of  the 
pilchard  fifhery  :  c  It  employs,'  fays  he,  '  a  great  number 
'  of  men  on  the  fea,  training  them  thereby  to  naval  af- 

*  fairs ;  employs  men,  women,  and  children  at  land,  in 
6  falting,    preffing,    wafhing,    and  cleaning,    in   making 
c  boats,  nets,  ropes,  calks,  and  all  the  trades  depending 
c  on  their  conftruction  and  fale.     The  poor  is  fed  with 

*  the  offals  of  the  captures,  the  land  with   the  refufe  of 
6  the  fifh  and  fait ;  the  merchant  finds  the  gains  of  com- 
c  miflion  and  honeft  commerce,  the  fifherman  the  gains 
6  of  the  fifh.     Ships  are  often  freighted  hither  with  fait, 
4  and  into  foreign  countries  with  the  fifh,  carrying  off> 
c  at  the  fame  time,  part  of  our  tin.     The  ufual  produce 
6  of  the  number  of  hogfheads  exported  each  year,  for 
4  ten  years,  from  1747  to  1756  inclufive,  from  the  four 
6  ports  of  Tawy,  Falmouth,  Penzance,  and  St.  Ives,  it 
6  appears,  that  Tawy  has  exported  yearly  1732  hogfheads; 
'Falmouth,  14631  hogfheads  and  two-thirds;  Penzance 
4  and  Mounts-Bay,   12149  hogfheads  and  one-third;  St. 

*  Ives,  1282  hogfheads :  In  all  amounting  to  29,795  hogf- 
6  heads.     Every  hogfhead,  for  ten  years  laft  pafl,  together 
c  with  the  bounty  allowed  for  each  hogfhead  exported, 

*  and  the  oil  made  out  of  each  hogfhead,  has  amounted, 
?  one  year  with  another  at  an  average,  to  the  price  of 
6  one  pound  thirteen  fhillings  and  three  pence  j  10  that 

'the 


446  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

<  the  cafh  paid  for  pilchards  exported  has,  at  a  medium, 
*  annually  amounted  to  the  fum  of  L.  49,5  3 2  :  10  :  o.' 

Of  the  land-crab  there  are  feveral  fpecies.  The  mi- 
gration of  what  is  called  the  violet  land-crab  deferves  fome 
notice.  -It  inhabits  the  warmer  regions  of  Europe :  But 
Its  particular  refidence  is  in  the  tropical  climates  of  Afri- 
ca and  America.  Land-crabs  generally  frequent  the 
mountainous  parts  of  the  country,  which  are,  of  courfe, 
mod  remote  from  the  fea.  They  inhabit  the  hollows  of 
old  trees,  the  clefts  of  rocks,  and  hples  which  they  them- 
felves  dig  in  the  earth.  They  are  extremely  numerous. 
In  the  months  of  April  and  May,  they  leave  their  retreats 
in  the  mountains,  and  march  in  millions  to  the  fea-fhore. 
At  this  period  the  whole  ground  is  covered  with  them  ; 
and  a  man  can  hardly  put  down  his  foot  without  tread- 
ing on  them  *.  The  object  of  their  migration  is  to  de- 
pofit  their  fpawn  on  the  fea-more.  In  their  progrefs  to- 
wards the  fea,  like  the  northern  rats,  the  land-crabs  move 
in  a  ftraight  line.  Even  when  a  houfe  intervenes,  inftead 
of  deviating  to  the  right  or  left,  they  attempt  to  fcale  the 
walls.  But,  when  they  meet  with  a  river,  they  are  oblig- 
ed to  wind  along  the  courfe  of  the  dream.  In  their  mi- 
gration from  the  mountains,  they  obferve  the  greateft  re- 
gularity, and  commonly  divide  into  three  battalions,  or 
bodies.  The  firft  confifts  of  the  flrongeft  and  boldefl 
males,  who,  like  pioneers,  march  forward  to  clear  the 
route,  and  to  face  the  greateft  dangers.  The  females, 
who  form  the  main  body,  defcend  from  the  mountains 
in  regular  columns,  which  are  fifty  paces  broad,  three 
miles  long,  and  fo  clofe  that  they  almoft  entirely  cover 
the  ground.  Three  or  four  days  afterwards,  the  rear- 
guard follows,  which  confifts  of  a  draggling  undifciplin- 
ed  troop  of  males  and  females.  They  travel  chiefly  dur- 
ing the  night ;  but,  if  it  rains  by  day  (for  moifture  facili- 
tates their  motion),  they  proceed  in  their  flow  uniform 
manner.  When  the  fun  ihines,  and  the  furface  of  the 
ground  is  dry,  they  make  an  univerfal  halt  till  the  even- 
ing, and  then  refume  their  march.  When  alarmed  with 

danger, 

*  Voyage  aux  Ifles  Francoifesj  par  Labat,  torn,  2.  pag.  221.     S, 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.        44? 

danger^  they  run  backward  in  a  diforderly  manner,  and 
hold  up  their  nippers  in  a  threatening  pofture.  They  even 
feem  to  intimidate  their  enemies;  for,  when  difturbed, 
they  make  a'  clattering  noife  with  their  nippers.  But* 
though  they  endeavour  to  render  themfelves  formidable 
to  their  enemies,  they  are  cruel  to  each  other.  When  an 
individual,  by  any  accident,  is  fo  maimed  that  he  cannot 
proceed,  his  companions  immediately  devour  him,  and 
then  purfue  their  journey.  After  a  fatiguing  and  tedious 
march,  which  fometimes  continues  three  months  before 
they  reach  the  fhore,  they  prepare  themfelves  for  depofiU 
ing  their  fpawn.  The  eggs  ftill  remain  in  the  bodies  of 
the  animals,  and  are  not  excluded,  as  ufual  to  this  genus, 
under  the  tail.  To  facilitate  the  maturation  and  exclu- 
fion  of  the  eggs,  the  land-crabs  no  fooner  arrive  on  the 
fhore,  than  they  approach  to  the  margin  of  the  fea,  and 
allow  the  waves  to  pafs  feveral  times  over  their  bodies. 
They  immediately  retire  to  the  land  ;  the  eggs,  in  the 
mean  time,  come  nearer  to  maturity,  and  the  animals 
once  more  go  into  the  water,  depofit  their  eggs,  and  leave 
the  event  to  Nature.  The  bunches  of  fpawn  are  fome- 
times as  large  as  a  hen's  egg  ;  and  it  is  not  incurious  to 
remark,  that,  at  this  very  period,  numbers  of  fifhes  of 
different  kinds  are  anxioufly  waiting  for  this  annual  fupply 
of  food.  Whether  the  painful  migration  of  the  land- 
crabs,  or  the  wonderful  inftincl:  of  the  .fifties  which  await 
their  arrival,  in  order  to  devour  their  fpawn,  is  the  moft 
aftonifliing  facl,  we  mail  leave  to  the  confideration  of 
philofophers.  The  eggs  which  efcape  thefe  voracious  fifti- 
es are  hatched  under  the  fand.  Soon  after,  millions  of  mi- 
nute crabs  are  feen  leaving  the  fhore,  and  migrating  flow- 
ly  toward  the  mountains.  Moft  of  the  old  ones,  how- 
ever, remain  in  the  flat  parts  of  the  country  till  they  re- 
gain their  ftrength.  They  dig  holes  in  the  earth,  the 
mouths  of  which  they  cover  with  leaves  and  mud.  Here 
they  throw  off  their  old  fhells,  remain  quite  naked,  and 
alrnoft  without  motion  for  fix  days,  when  they  become 
fo  fat  that  they  are  efteemed  delicious  food.  When  the 
new  fhell  has  hardened,  the  animals,  by  an  inftindive 
impulfe,  march  back  to  thofe  mountains  which  they  had 

formerly. 


448  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

formerly  deferted.  In  Jamaica,  where  they  are  nume- 
rous, the  land-crabs  are  regarded  as  great  delicacies  ;  and 
they  are  fo  abundant,  that  the  Haves  are  often  fed  entire- 
ly upon  them. 

The  migrating  principle  is  not  confined  to  men,  qua- 
drupeds, birds,  and  reptiles  :  It  extends  to  many  of  the 
infed -tribes.  Numberlefs  inhabitants  of  the  air  pafs  the 
firft  flages  of  their  exiflence  in  the  waters.  There  they 
remain  for  longer  or  fhorter  periods,  according  to  the 
fpecies.  Previous  to  their  transformation  into  chryfalids, 
they  quit  the  waters,  and  come  upon  dry  ground,  where 
they  undergo  their  amazing  change.  Inftead  of  active 
water-worms,  they  dig  or  find  holes  in  the  earth,  where 
they  are  converted  into  chryfalids,  or  feemingly-inani mat- 
ed beings,  and,  in  a  fhort  time,  mount  into  the  air  in 
the  form  of  winged  infects.  Similar  migrations  are  to 
be  obferved  among  land-infects.  But  migration  is  not 
confined  to  water-worms.  Many  fpecies  of  caterpillars, 
which  feed  upon  the  leaves  of  trees,  fhrubs,  and  other 
vegetables,  when  about  to  undergo  their  transformation, 
leave  their  former  abodes,  defcend  from  the  trees,  and 
conceal  themfelves  in  the  earth.  The  hiving  of  bees, 
when  numerous  colonies  remove  in  order  to  eftahlifh  new 
fettlements,  is  another  inftance  of  the  migration  of  in- 
fects. Indeed,  if  we  except  bees,  wafps,  ants,  and  a  few 
others,  moft  infects,  whether  they  inhabit  the  air,  the  earth, 
or  the  waters,  are  perfect  wanderers,  having-  no  fixed  place 
of  refidence.  Some  of  them,  as  the  fpider-tribes,  build 
temporary  apartments ;  but,  when  difturbed,  they  mi- 
grate to  another  commodious  place,  and  erect  new  habi- 
tations. 

From  the  facts  which  have  been  enumerated,  it  is  ap- 
parent, that  the  principle  of  migration,  or  the  defire  of 
changing  fituations,  is  not  confined  to  particular  birds, 
but  extends  through  almoil  the  whole  fyftem  of  anima- 
tion. Men,  quadrupeds,  birds,  fifties,  reptiles,  infects, 
all  afford  finking  examples  of  the  migrating  principle. 
From  the  fame  facts  it  is  equally  apparent,  that  the  gene- 
ral motives  for  migrating  are  fimilar  in  every  clafs  of  ani- 
mals. Food,  multiplication  of  fpecies,  and  a  comfortable 

tempe- 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.        449 

temperature  of  air,  are  evidently  the  chief  caufes  which 
induce  animals  to  remove  from  one  place  to  another,  or, 
what  amounts  to  the  fame  thing,  from  one  climate  to  an- 
other. Partial  emigrations,  or  emigrations  to  fmall  dif- 
tances,  are  prompted  by  the  fame  inflinclive  motives 
which  induce  animals  of  a  different  ftru&ure  to  under- 
take long  and  fatiguing  excurfions.  Bu-t,  previous  to  ac- 
tual migration,  what  are  the  peculiar  feelings  of  different 
animals,  and  what  ihould  flimulate  them  to  proceed  uni- 
formly in  the  direction  that  ultimately  leads  them  to  the 
fituations  moft  accommodated  to  their  wants  and  their 
conftitutions,  are  myfteries,  with  regard  to  which,  like 
every  other  part  of  the  ceconomy  of  Nature,  it  is  the 
duty  of  philofophers,  inftead  of  attempting  to  pufh  their 
inquiries  beyond  the  bounds  of  human  ability,  to  obferve 
a  refpe&able  filence. 


CHAPTER      XXI, 

Of  the  Longevity  and  Dtjfplutim  of  Organlfed  Bodies. 


IT  is  a  law  of  Nature,  though  a  melancholy  one,  that 
all  organifed  bodies  fhould  be  diflblved.     The  periods 
of  dhTolution,  however,  are  as  various  as  the  fpecies,  and 
the  intentions  of  Nature  in  producing  them. 

In  the  humankind,  the  brevity  of  life  is  regarded  as  an 
object  of  regret.  One  half  of  mankind  die  before  they 
arrive  at  eight  years  of  age.  From  that  early  period  to 
eighty,  befide  the  deftru&ion  of  war,  and  other  acci- 
dents, Nature  kills  them  annually  in  millions.  Some  in- 
f  lances  may  be  given  of  men  whofe  lives  were  prolonged 
beyond  the  ufual  period  of  human  exiftence.  Such  men 
are  not  to  be  envied ;  nor  fhould  they  be  confidered  as 
favourites  of  Nature.  With  refpecl  to  maturity  of  judg- 
ment, and  a  knowledge  of  the  world 3  no  man  can  be  faid 

Lll  to 


450  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

to  exift  till  he  paffes  thirty  years  of  age.  Give  him  thirty 
or  thirty-five  more,  and,  in  general,  both  mind  and  body 
are  vifibly  declined.  Thefe  people,  therefore,  who  arrive 
at  an  extraordinary  age,  may  be  laid  to  exift,  but  they  do 
not  live.  All  hitelle&ual  enjoyments  and  exertions,  which 
conititute  the  chief  dignity  and  happinefs  of  man,  are 
gone.  There  are  exceptions  ;  but  thefe  exceptions  are 
confirmations  of  what  we  have  advanced.  Mankind,  in- 
the  early  ages  of  the  world,  have  been  faid  to  live  for  fe- 
veral  centuries.  We  mean  not  to  contradict  the  aflertion. 
But  we  muft  remark,  that,  if  ever  men  lived  fo  long,  they 
muft  have  been  very  different,  both  in  the  ftru&ure  of 
their  bodies  and  in  their  manners,  from  thofe  who  now 
exift.  From  infancy  to  manhood,  there  is  a  gradual 
growth  or  extenfion  of  our  organs.  After  this  period, 
and  when  we  advance  in  years,  the  bones  harden,  the 
mufcles  turn  ftiff,  the  cartilages  are  converted  into  bones, 
the  membranes  into  cartilages,  the  flomach  and  bowels 
lofe  their  tone,  and  the  whole  fabrick,  inftead  of  being 
foft,  flexible,  and  obedient  to  the  inclinations,  or  even  the 
commands,  of  the  mind,  becomes  rigid,  ina&ive,  and 
feeble.  Thefe  are  the  general  and  progreflive  caufes  of 
death,  and  they  are  common  to  all  animals.  There  are 
modes  of  living  more  favourable  to  health  than  others » 
But  examples  are  not  'wanting  of  men  who  have  arrived 
at  an  extreme  old  age,  without  obferving  either  tempe- 
rance, or  any  of  the  other  modes  of  living  which  are  ge- 
nerally fuppofed  to  be  favourable  to  longevity.  Some 
men,  who  lived  temperately,  and  even  abftemioufly,  have 
reached  to  great  ages  ;  Others,  who  obferved  the  very  op- 
pofite  conducl,  who  lived  freely  and  often  intemperately, 
have  had  their  exiftence  equally  prolonged.  But,  in  ge- 
neral, notwithftanding  a  few  exceptions,  temperance,  a 
placid  and  chearful  difpoiition,  moderate  exercife,  and 
proper  exertions  of  mind,  contribute,  in  no  uncommon 
degree,  to  the  prolongation  of  life. 

A  few  examples  of  longevity  in  the  human  fpecies, 
though  no  general  concluiions  can  be  drawn  from  them, 
may  not  be  incurious  to  the  reader.  We  fhall  not  go 
back  to  a  remote  and  obfcure  antiquity,  but  confine  our- 

felves 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.        451 

felves  to  more  modern  times,  when  the  modes  of  living 
were  nearly  the  fame  as  they  are  at  prefent. 

On  this  fubjecl,  the  celebrated  Lord  Verulam,  in  his 
Sylva  Sylvarurn*,  gives  the  following  paffage,  chiefly 
tranflated  from  the  feventh  book  of  Pliny's  Natural  Hif- 
tory  :  *  The  year  of  our  Lord  feventy-fix,  falling  into  the 

*  time  of  Vefpafian,  is   memorable  j  in  which  we  mall 
x  find,  as  it  were,  a  kalendar  of  long-lived  men :   For 
c  that  year  there  was  a  taxing,  (now  a  taxing  is  the  mod 

*  authentical  and  trueft  informer  touching  the  ages  of 
4  men),  and  in  that  part  of  Italy  which  lieth  between 

*  the  Appennine  mountains  and  the  river  Po,  there  were 

*  found  1 24  perfons  that  either  equalled  or  exceeded  an 

*  hundred  years  of  age,  namely, 

6  Fifty-four  of  100  years  each. 

*  Fifty -feven  no 
4  Two  125 
4  Four                                              130 

4  Four  -  135  or  137 

4  Three  -         -  140 

*  Befide  thefe,  Parma,  in  particular,  afforded  five,  whereof, 

*  Three  were  -  120  years  each. 
4  Two  130 

4  One  in  Bruxelles  125 

4  One  in  Placentia         -         -       131 
4  One  in  Faventia       -  132 

*  A  certain  town,  then  called  the  Velleiatium,  fituate  in 

*  the  hills  about  Placentia,  afforded  ten,  whereof 

•4  Six  were  -  no  years  each. 

*  Four  -  1 20 

*  One  in  Rimino,  whofe  name 

4  was  Marcus  Aponius  1 50.* 

The  moft  extraordinary  inftance  of  longevity  in  Great 
Britain  was  exhibited  in  the  perfon  of  Henry  Jenkins. 
He  was  a  native  of  Yorkfhire,  lived  to  the  amazing  age 
of  169  years,  and  died  on  the  8th  day  of  December  1670. 
Next  to  Jenkins,  we  have  the  famous  Thomas  Parre, 
who  was  a  native  of  Shropfhire,  and  died  on  the  i6th 
day  of  November  1635?  at  the  age  of  152. 

Francis 

*  Page  293.    $» 


452  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

Francis  Confifl,  a  native  of  Yorkfhire,  aged  150,  died 
in  January  1768. 

Margaret  Forfter,  aged  136,  and  her  daughter,  aged 
104,  were  natives  of  Cumberland,  and  both  alive  in  the 
year  1771. 

William  Evans,  aged  145,  lived  in  Carnarvon,  and 
(till  exifted  in  the  year  1782. 

Dumiter  Radaloy,  aged  140,  lived  in  Harmenflead, 
and  died  on  the  i6th  day  of  January  1782. 

James  Bowels,  aged  152,  lived  in  Kilingworth,  and 
died  on  the  i'ijtl)  day  of  Augufl  1656. 

The  Countefs  of  Defmond,  in  Ireland,  faw  her  i4oth 
year. 

Mr.  Eclefton,  a  native  of  Ireland,  lived  to  the  age  of 
143,  and  died  in  the  year  1691. 

John  Mount,  a  native  of  Scotland,  faw  his  136^1  year, 
and  died  on  the  27th  day  of  February  1776. 

William  Ellis  of  Liverpool  died  on  the  i6th  day  of 
Augufl  1780,  at  the  age  of  130. 

Colonel  Thomas  Winiloe,  a  native  of  Ireland,  aged 
146,  died  on  the  22d  day  of  Auguft'1 1766. 

John  Taylor  was  born  in  Carrygill,  in  the  county  of 
Cumberland.  He  was  bred  a  miner.  His  father  died 
when  John  was  only  four  years  of  age.  Poverty  obliged 
him  to  be  fet  early  to  work.  During  two  years  he  drefled 
lead  ore  for  2d.  a-day.  The  next  three  or  four  years  he 
affifted  the  miners  in  removing  the  ore  and  rubbifh  to  the 
bank,  for  which  he  received  4d.  a-day.  At  this  period 
there  happened  a  great  folar  eclipfe,  which  was  diftin- 
guifhed  in  Scotland  by  the  appellation  of  Mirk  Monday  *. 
This  event,  which  he  always  repeated  with  the  fame  cir- 
cumftances,  is  the  chief  aera  from  which  John's  age  has 
been  computed.  After  labouring  many  years  both  in 
this  and  the  neighbouring  kingdom,  he  died,  near  Lead- 
hills  in  Scotland,  in  the  month  of  May  17^70,  at  the 
great  age  of  133. 

Though  the  above  modern  examples  of  extraordinary 
longevity  reft  chiefly  on  the  authority  of  periodical  pub- 
lications, 

*  Mirk,  in  the  Scottifh  dialeft,  iignifies  darkj  and  the  eclipfe  happened  in  the 
year  1652,    S. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.        453 

lications,  yet  there  is  not  a  doubt,  that,  in  all  countries, 
and  at  all  times,  fome  perfons  of  both  fexes  have  arrived 
at  ages  far  beyond  the  common  periods  of  human  life. 
If  the  reader  is  defirous  of  feeing  many  inftances  of  lon- 
gevity, he  may  confult  Bacon's  Hiftory  of  Life  and  Death  f, 
Whitehurft's  Inquiry  into  the  Original  State  and  formation 
of  the  Earth  ||,  and  Dr.  Fothergill's  Qbfervatfons  on  Longe- 
vity §. 

The  general  caufes  of  death  have  already  been  menti- 
oned. But,  in  women,  the  operation  of  thefe  caufes  is 
frequently  retarded.  In  the  female  fex,  the  bones,  the 
cartilages,  the  mufcles,  as  well  as  every  other  part  of  the 
body,  are  fofter  and  lefs  folid  than  thofe  of  the  men : 
Neither  are  they  generally  fo  much  fubjecled  to  bodily  ex- 
ertions. Their  conftituent  parts,  accordingly,  require 
more  time  in  hardening  to  that  degree  which  occasions 
death.  Women,  of  courfe,  ought  to  live  longer  than 
men.  This  reafoning  is  confirmed  by  the  bills  of  mor- 
tality ;  for,  upon  confulting  them,  it  appears,  that,  after 
women  have  paflfed  a  certain  time,  they  live  much  longer 
than  men  who  have  reached  the  fame  period.  The  dura- 
tion of  the  lives  of  animals  may,  in  fome  meafure,  be 
eftimated  by  the  time  occupied  in  their  growth.  An  ani- 
mal, or  even  a  plant,  as  we  learn  from  experience,  which 
acquires  maturity  in  a  fhort  time,  perifhes  much  fooner 
than  thofe  which  are  longer  in  arriving  at  that  period. 
In  the  human  fpecies,  when  individuals  grow  with  un- 
common rapidity,  they  generally  die  young.  This  cir- 
cumilance  feems  to  have  given  rife  to  the  common  pro- 
verbial expreffion,  Soon  ripe  foon  rotten.  Man  grows  in 
ilature  till  he  be  fixteen  or  eighteen  years  of  age  ;  but 
the  thicknefs  of  his  body  is  not  completely  unfolded  be- 
fore that  of  thirty.  Dogs  acquire  their  full  length  in  one 
year  ;  but  their  growth  in  thicknefs  is  not  finifhed  till  the 
end  of  the  fecond.  A  man,  who  continues  to  grow  for 
thirty  years,  may  live  ninety  or  a  hundred :  But  a  dog, 
whole  growth  terminates  in  two  or  three  years,  lives  only 

ten 

Sylva  Sylvafum,  pag.  €73,  &c.     S. 

ed.  edit.  pag.  165.     S. 

Annual  Regifter,  Natural  Hiiiory  divifion,  pag.  61.    S, 


454  THE-    PHILOSOPHY 

ten  or  twelve  years.  The  fame  obfervation  is  applicable 
to  mofl  animals.  Fifties  continue  to  grow  for  a  great 
number  of  years.  Some  of  them,  accordingly,  live  dur- 
ing feveral  centuries ;  becaufe  their  bones  and  cartilages 
feldom  acquire  the  denfity  of  thjofe  of  other  animals.  It 
may,  therefore,  be  confidered  as  a  general  fact,  that  large 
animals  live  longer  than  fmall  ones,  becaufe  the  former 
require  more  time  to  complete  their  growth.  Thus  the 
caufes  of  our  diffolution  are  inevitable ;  and  it  is  equally 
impoflible  to  retard  that  fatal  period,  as  to  change  the 
eftablilhed  laws  of  Nature.  When  the  conftitution  is 
found,  life  may,  perhaps,  by  moderating  the  paffions,  and 
by  temperance,  be  prolonged  for  a  few  years.  But  the 
varieties  of  climate,  and  of  the  modes  of  living,  make 
no  material  differences  with  regard  to  the  period  of  our 
exiftence,  which  is  nearly  the  fame  in  the  European,  the 
Negro,  the  Afiatic,  the  American,  the  civilized  man  and 
the  favage,  the  rich  and  the  poor,  the  citizen  and  the 
peafant.  Neither  does  the  difference  of  food,  or  of  ac- 
commodation, make  any  change  on  the  duration  of  life. 
Men  who  are  fed  on  raw  flefh  or  dried  fifh,  on  fago  or 
rice,  on  caflada  or  roots,  live  as  long  as  thofe  who  ufe 
bread  and  prepared  victuals.  If  luxury  and  intemperance 
be  excepted,  nothing  can  alter  thofe  laws  of  mechanifm 
which  invariably  determine  the  number  of  our  years. 
Any  little  differences  which  may  be  remarked  in  the  term 
of  human  life,  feem  to  be  chiefly  owing  to  the  quality  of 
the  air.  In  general,  there  are  more  old  men  in  high  than 
in  low  countries.  The  mountains  of  Scotland,  of  Wales, 
and  of  Switzerland,  have  furnifhed  more  examples  of 
longevity  than  the  plains  of  Holland,  Flanders,  Germany, 
or  Poland.  But,  if  we  take  a  furvey  of  mankind,  what- 
ever be  the  climate  they  inhabit,  or  their  mode  of  living, 
there  is  fcarcely  any  difference  in  the  duration  of  life. 
When  men  are  not  cut  off  by  accidental  difeafes,  indivi- 
duals may  every  where  be  found  who  live  ninety  or  a 
hundred  years.  Our  anceftors,  with  few  exceptions, 
never  exceeded  this  period ;  and,  fmce  the  days  of  David 
King  of  the  Jews,  it  has  undergone  no  variation.  Befide 
accidental  dileafes,  which  are  more  frequent,  as  well  as 

more 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.        455 

more  dangerous,  in  the  latter  periods  of  life,  old  men 
are  fubjeded  to  natural  infirmities  that  originate  folely 
from  a  decay  of  the  different  parts  of  the  body.  The 
mufcles  lofe  their  tone,  the  head  makes,  the  hands  trem- 
ble, the  limbs  totter,  the  fenfibility  of  the  nerves  is  blunt- 
ed, the  cavities  of  the  veflels  contract,  the  fecretory  or- 
gans are  obftrufted,  the  blood,  the  lymph,  and  the  other 
fluids,  extravafate,  and  produce  all  thofe  fymptoms  and 
difeales  which  are  commonly  afcribed  to  a  vitiation  of  the 
humours.  The  natural  decay  of  the  folids,  however,  ap- 
pears to  be  the  original  caule  of  all  thefe  maladies.  It  is 
true,  that  a  bad  (late  of  the  fluids  proceeds  from  a  de- 
pravity in  the  organization  of  the  folids.  But  the  effects 
refulting  from  a  noxious  change  in  the  fluids  produce  the 
mofl  alarming  fymptoms.  When  the  fluids  ftagnate,  or 
if,  by  a  relaxation  of  the  veflels,  an  extravafation  takes 
place,  they  foon  corrupt,  and  corrode  the  weaker  parts 
of  the  folids.  Hence  the  caufes  of  diflblution  gradually, 
but  perpetually,  multiply,  our  internal  enemies  grow  more 
and  more  powerful,  and  at  lafl  put  a  period  to  our  exift- 
ence. 

With  regard  to  Quadrupeds  ^  the  caufes  of  their  diflblu- 
tion are  precifely  the  fame  with  thofe  which  deftroy  the 
human  fpecies.  The  times  of  their  growth  bear,  like- 
wife,  fome  proportion  to  the  duration  of  their  lives.  But, 
as  we  have  already  given  a  Table  of  the  ages  at  which 
different  quadrupeds  are  capable  of  multiplying  their  fpe- 
cies, and  of  the  general  duration  of  their  lives,  to  avoid 
unneceflary  repetitions,  we  muft  refer  the  -reader  to  page 
255  of  this  work. 

Some  Birds  afford  inftances  of  great  longevity.  In 
this  clafs  of  animals,  the  duration  of  life  is  by  no  means 
proportioned  to  the  times  of  their  growth.  Mod  of  them 
acquire  their  full  dimenfions  in  a  few  months,  and  are 
capable  of  multiplying  the  fpecies  the  firft  fpring  or  fum- 
mer  after  they  are  hatched.  In  proportion  to  the  fize  of 
their  bodies,  birds  are  much  more  vivacious,  and  live 
longer  than  either  men  or  quadrupeds.  Swans  have  been 
faid  to  live  three  hundred  years  ;  but,  though  mentioned 
by  refpe&able  writers,  the  aiTertion  is  not  fupported  by 

any 


456  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

any  authentic  evidence.  Mr.  Willoughby,  in  his  Orni- 
thology*, remarks,  c  We  have  been  aflured  by  a  friend 
4  of  ours,  a  perfon  of  very  good  credit,  that  his  father 

*  kept  a  goofe  known  to  be  fourfcore  years  of  age,    and 

*  as  yet  found  and  lufty,   and  like  enough  to  have  lived 

*  many  years  longer,    had  he  not  been  forced  to  kill  her 

*  for  her  mifchievoumefs,   worrying  and  deftroying  the 
6  young  geefe  and  goflings.'     In  another  part  of  his  valu- 
able work,    Mr.  Willoughby  tells  us,    '  that  he  has  been 

*  aflured  by  credible  perfons,  that  a  goofe  will  live  a  hun- 
'  dred  years  and  more  f.J     In  man  and  quadrupeds,  the 
duration  of  life  bears  fome  proportion  to  the  times  of  their 
growth.     But,  in  birds,  their  growth,    and  their  powers 
of  reproduction,  are  more  rapid,   though  they  live  pro- 
portionally longer.     Some  fpecies  of  birds,    as  all  the 
gallinaceous  tribes,   can  make  ufe  of  their  limbs  the  mo- 
ment they  iflue  from  the  fhell ;  and,  in  a  month  or  five 
weeks  after,    they  can  likewife  employ  their  wings.     A 
dung-hill  cock  has  the  capacity  of  engendering  at  the  age 
of  four  months,    but  does  not  acquire  his  full  growth  in 
lefs  than  a  year.     The  fmaller  birds  are  perfect  in  four  or 
five  months.      They  grow  more  rapidly,   and  produce 
much  fooner  than  quadrupeds,  and  yet  they  live  propor- 
tionally much  longer.     In  man  and  quadrupeds,  the  du- 
ration of  life  is  about  fix  or  feven  times  more  than  that  of 
their  growth.     According  to  this  rule,  a  cock  or  a  par- 
rot, who  arrive  at  their  full  growth  and  powers  in  one 
year,    fhould  not  live  above  fix  or  feven.     But  Nature 
knows  none  of  our  rules.    She  accommodates  her  conduct, 
not  to  our  mallow,  and  often  prefumptuous,  conclufions, 
but  to  the  prefervation  of  fpecies,  and  to  the  fupport  and 
general  balance  of  the  great  fyftem  of  animated  beings. 
Ravens,   though  capable  of  providing  for  themfelves  in 
lefs  than  a  year,    fometimes  have  their  lives  protracted 
more  than  a  century.     The  Count  de  Buffon  informs  us, 
that,  in  feveral  places  in  France,  ravens  have  been  known 
to  arrive  at  this  extraordinary  age,  and  that,  at  all  times, 
and  in  all  countries,   they  have  been  efteemed  birds  of 
great  longevity  J.  <  Eagles/ 

*  Page  14.     S.  t  Ornithology,  page  256.     S. 

*  Hift.  Nat.  dcs  Oifeaux,  torn  3.  page  38.     S.  * 


OP    NATURAL    HISTORY.        457 

'  Eagles,'  fays  Mr.  Pennant,  '  are  remarkable  for  their 

*  longevity,  and  for  their  power  of  fuftaining  a  long  abfti- 
c  nence  from  food.     A  golden  eagle,  which  has  now  been 

*  nine  years  in  poffefiion  of  Owen  Holland,  Efq.  of  Conway, 

*  lived  thirty-two  years  with  the   gentleman  who  made 
c  him  a  prefent  of  it ;  but  what  its  age  was  when  the  lat- 
c  ter  received  it  from  Ireland  is  unknown.     The  fame  bird 
4  alfo  furnifhes  a  proof  of  the  truth  of  the  other  remark, 
c  having  once,  through  the  neglecl  of  fervants,  endured 
'hunger  for   twenty-one   days,    without  any  fuftenance 
6  whatfoeverV     The  pelican  that  was  kept   at  Mechlin 
in  Brabant  during  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Maximilian, 
was  believed  to  be  eighty  years  of  age.     c  What  is  re- 
c  ported  of  the  age  of  eagles  and  ravens,5  fays  Mr.  Wil- 
loughby,  4  although  it  exceeds  all  belief,  yet  doth  it  evince 
6  that  thofe  birds  are  very  long-lived-)-.'     Pigeons  have 
been  known  to  live  from  twenty   to  twenty-two   years. 
Even  the  fmaller  birds  live  very  long  in  proportion  to  the 
time  of  their  growth  and  the  iize  of  their  bodies.     Lin- 
nets, gold-finches,  &c.  often  live  in  cages  fifteen,  twenty, 
and  even  twenty-three  years. 

Fi/hes, .  whofe  bones  are  more  cartilaginous  than  thofe 
of  men  and  quadrupeds,  are  long  of  acquiring  their  ut- 
moft  growth,  and  many  of  them  live  to  great  ages.  Gel- 
ner  gives  an  inftance  of  a  carp  in  Germany  which  he 
knew  to  be  one  hundred  years  old|.  Bufibn  irrforms  us, 
that,  in  the  Count  Maurepa's  ponds,  he  had  feen  carps 
of  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  of  age,  and  that  the  fa£t 
was  attefted  in  the  moil  fatisfa&ory  manner.  He  even 
mentions  one  which  he  fuppofed  to  be  two  hundred  years 
old||.  Two  methods  have  been  devifed  for  afcertaining 
the  age  of  fifties,  namely,  by  the  circles x  of  the  fcales, 
and  by  a  traniverfe  fedlion  of  the  back-bcne.  When  a 
fcale  of  a  fifh  is  examined  by  the  mkrofcope,  it  is  found 
to  confift  of  a  number  of  circles  within  one  another,  re- 
fernbling,  in  fome  meafure,  thofe  rings  that  appear  on  the 

M  m  m  ,       tranfverfe 

*  Britifh  Zoology,  vol.  1.  8vo  edit,  page  123.     S. 

t  Ornithology,  pa  e  14.     S. 

|  G-fner  dp  Ptfc.  pa^e  312.     S. 

|j  Epoques  dc  la  Nature,  page  181.     S. 


458  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

tranfverfe  fe&ions  of  trees,  by  which  their  ages  are  com- 
puted. In  the  fame  manner,  the  ages  of  fifties  may  be 
afcertained  by  the  number  of  circles  on  their  fcales,  rec- 
koning for  each  ring  one  year  of  the  animal's  exiftence. 
The  ages  of  Buffon's  carps  were  chiefly  determined  by 
the  circles  on  their  fcales.  The  age  of  fifties  that  want 
fcales,  as  the  fkate  and  ray-kind,  may  be  pretty  exactly 
known  by  feparating  the  joints  of  the  back-bone,  and 
obferving  minutely  the  number  of  rings  which  the  furface 
exhibits.  Both  of  thefe  methods  may  be  liable  to  de- 
ception ;  but  they  are  the  only  natural  ones  which  have 
hitherto  been  discovered.  The  longevity  of  fifhes  has 
been  afcribed  to  feveral  caufes.  The  element  in  which 
they  live  is  more  uniform,  and  lefs  fubjecl:  to  accidental 
changes  than  the  air  of  our  atmofphere.  Their  bones, 
which  are  more  of  a  cartilaginous  nature  than  thofe  of 
land-animals,  admit  of  indefinite  extenfion  ;  of  courfe, 
their  bodies,  inftead  of  fuffering  the  rigidity  of  age  at 
an  early  period,  which  is  the  natural  caufe  of  death,  con- 
tinue to  grow  much  longer  than  thofe  of  mofl  land-ani- 


mals. 


As  to  the  age  of  Reptiles,  probably  from  the  uninte- 
reiting  nature  of  the  animals,  we  have  very  little  infor- 
mation. But  two  letters  of  J.  Arfcott,  Efq.  of  Tehott  in 
Devonfhire,  concerning  the  longevity  of  a  ioad^  deferve 
fome  notice.  Thefe  letters  were  addreffed  to  Dr.  Millesy 
Dean  of  Exeter,  and  by  him  communicated  to  Mr.  Pen- 
nant in  the  year  1768:  c  It  would  give  me  the  greateft 

*  pleafure,'  fays  Mr.  Arfcott,  '  to  be  able  to  inform  you 
4  of  any  particulars  worthy  Mr.  Pennant's  notice,  con- 
c  cerning  the  toad  who  lived  fo  many  years  with  us,  and 
c  was  fo  great  a  favourite. — It  had  frequented  fome  fteps 

*  before  the  hall-door  fome  years  before  my  acquaintance 
c  commenced  with  it,  and  had  been  admired  by  my  fa- 

*  ther  for  its  fize,  (which  was  of  the  largefl  I  ever  met 
4  with),  who  conflantly  paid  it  a  vifit  every  evening.     I 
c  knew  it  myfelf  above   thirty  years,  and,   by  conflantly 
c  feeding  it,  brought  it  to  be  fo  tame,  that  it  always  came 
e  to  the  candle,  and  looked  up,  as  if  expecting  to  be  ta- 
c  ken  up  and  brought  upon  the  table,  where  I  always  fed 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.        459 

*  it  with  infects  of  all  forts. — You  may  imagine  that  a  toad* 
4  generally  detefted,  (although  one  of  the  mod  inoffenfive 

*  of  all  animals),  fo  much  taken  notice  of  and  befriend- 
6  ed,  excited   the  curiofity  of  all  comers  to   the   houfe, 
e  who  all  defired  to  fee  it  fed  ;  fo  that  even  ladies  fo  far 
6  conquered  the  horrors  inftilled  into  them  by  nurfes,  as 
«  to  defire  to  fee  it*.'     In  the  fecond  letter,  Mr.  Arfcott 
remarks,  '  I  cannot  fay  how  Jong  my  father  had  been  ac- 
6  quainted  with  the  toad  before  I  knew  it ;  but,  when  I 

*  was  nrft  acquainted  with  it,  he  ufed  to  mention  it  as  the 

*  old  toad  I  have  known  fo  many  years  ;  I  can  anfwer  for 
c  thirty-fix  years  f.' — c  In  refpe&  to  its   end,  had  it   not 

*  been  for  a  tame  raven,  I  make  no  doubt  it  would  have 
c  been  now  living,  who,  one  day,  feeing  it  at  the  mouth 
c  of  its  hole,  pulled  it  out,  and,  though  I  refcued  it,  pull- 

*  ed  out  one  eye,  and  hurt  it  fo,  that,  notwithflanding  its 

*  living  a  twelvemonth,  it  never  enjoyed  itfelf,  and  had  a 
c  difficulty  in  taking  its  food,  miffing  the  mark  for  want 

*  of  its  eye.     Before  that  accident  it  had  all  the  appear- 

*  ance  of  perfect  health  J.'  , 

Mod  Infefls,  efpecially  after  their  lad  transformation, 
are  mort-iived.  But  the  fpecies  are  continually  fupported 
by  their  wonderful  fecundity.  Thofe  animals  whofe  parts 
require  a  long  time  of  hardening  and  expanding  are  en- 
dowed with  a  proportional  degree  of  longevity.  Infects 
grow,  and  their  bodies  harden,  more  quickly  than  thofe 
of  larger  animals.  Many  of  them  complete  their  growth 
in  a  few  weeks,  and  even  in  a  few  days.  The  duration  of 
^heir  exiftence  is  accordingly  limited  to  very  fliort  periods. 
Some  fpecies  of  flies  lie  in  a  torpid  (late  during  the  win- 
ter, and  revive  when  the  heat  of  fpring  or  fummer  returns. 
The  ephemeron-fiies,  of  which  there  are  feveral  kinds, 
feldom  live  above  one  day,  or  one  hour,  after  their  trans- 
formation. But,  to  continue  the  fpecies,  Nature  has 
taken  care  that  myriads  of  males  and  females  mould  be 
transformed  nearly  at  the  fame  inftant.  Were  it  other- 
wife,  the  males  and  females  could  have  no  opportunity  of 
meeting,  and  the  fpecies  would  foon  be  extinguished. 

Other 

*  Pennant's  Britlfh  Zcology,  vol.  3.  pag.  323.  S.  t  Ibid.  pag.  326.  S. 

}  Ibid.  pag.  331,     S. 


460  T  H  E    P  H  I  L  O  S  O  P  H  Y 

Other  kinds  are  transformed  more  irregularly,  and  live  fe- 
veral  days.  Here  the  wifdom  of  Nature  is  confpicucus  : 
She  prolongues  the  exiftence  of  thefe  animals  for  no  other 
purpofe  but  to  allow  the  individuals  of  both  fexes  to  meet 
and  multiply  the  fpecies.  Bees,  and  flies  of  all  kinds, 
after  lying  long  in  water,  and  having  every  appearance 
of  death,  revive  by  the  application  of  a  gentle  heat,  or  by 
covering  their  bodies  with  afhes,  chalk,  or  fand,  which 
abforb  the  fuperfluous  moiiture  from  their  pores.  Reau- 
mur made  many  experiments  upon  the  revivifcence  of 
drowned  bees.  He  found,  that,  after  being  immerfed  in 
water  for  nine  hours,  fome  of  them  returned  to  life  ;  but 
he  acknowledges  that  many  of  them,  in  the  fourth  part 
of  this  time,  were  aclualiy  dead,  and  that  neither  heat, 
nor  the  application  of  abforbent  powders,  could  reftore 
them  to  life.  Analogical  reafoning  is  often  deceitful,  but 
it  frequently  leads  to  uieful  truths.  As  flies  of  all  kinds, 
after  immerfion  in  water,  and  exhibiting  every  mark  of 
adual  death,  can  be  reftored  to  life  by  covering  their  bo- 
dies with  any  abforbent  fubftance,  without  the  afliilance 
of  a  heat  iuperior  to  that  of  the  common  atmotphere, 
might  not  the  ordinary  methods  employed  for  the  reco- 
very of  drowned  persons  be  affifted  by  the  application  of 
warm  afhes  or  chalk  ?  The  ftructurc  of  a  fly  and  that  of 
a  man,  it  is  allowed,  are  very  different.  But,  in  defperate 
cafes,  when  every  other  method  fails,  no  fad  fhould  be 
-overlooked,  and  no  analogy  defpiied. 

Plants  differ  as  much  in  the  periods  of  their  exiftence 
as  animals.  Many  plants  perifh  yearly;  others  are  bien- 
nial, triennial,  &c.  But,  the  longevity  and  magnitude 
oi  particular  trees  are  prodigious.  We  are  informed  by 
Mr.  Evelyn,  that  in  the  bodies  of  fome  Englifh  oaks, 
when  cut  tranfverfely,  three,  and  even  four  hundred  rings 
of  wood  have  been  diftinguifhed.  A  ring  of  wood  is  added 
annually  to  the  trunks  of  trees;  and,  by  counting  the 
rings,  the  age  of  any  tree  may  be  pretty  exactly  afcer- 
tained  *.  With  regard  to  the  magnitude  of  oaks,  fome 
of  them  are  huge  marTes,  Dr.  Hunter,  in  his  Notes  upon 
Evelyn's  Syiva,  remarks,  that  none  '  of  the  oaks  men- 

4  tioned 

*  See  Evelyn's  Sylva,  pag.  505,    S. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.        461 

*  tioned  by  Mr.  Evelyn  bear  any  proportion  to  one  now 

*  growing  at  Cowthorpe,  near  Wetherby,  upon  an  eftate 

*  belonging  to  the  Right  Hon.   Lady  Stourton.     The  di- 
€  mentions  are  almoft  incredible.     Within  three   feet  of 
4  the   furface,  it   meaiures   tixteen  yards,  and,  clofe  by 
6  the  ground,  twenty-fix  yards.     Its  height,  in  its  prefent 
4  and  ruinous  (late,  (1776),  is  about  eighty-five  feet,  and 
c  its  principal  limb  extends  tixteen  yards  from  the  bole. 
«  — When  compared  to  this,  all  other  trees  are  but  chil- 
6  dren  of  the  foreft  V 

From  the  facts  which  have  been  enumerated,  it  appears, 
that  all  animals,  as,  well  as  vegetables,  have  dated  periods 
of  exigence,  and  that  their  diffolution  is  uniformly  ac- 
complifhed  by  a  gradual  hardening  and  deficcation  of 
their  conftituent  parts.  No  art,  no  medicine,  can  retard 
the  operations  of  Nature.  It  is,  therefore,  the  wifdom 
and  the  duty  of  every  human  being  to  fail  down  the  ir- 
retiitible  current  of  Nature  with  all  poflible  tranquillity 
and  retignaticn.  Life,  whether  fliort  or  long,  whether 
fortunate  or  unfortunate,  when  the  fatal  period  arrives, 
is  of  little  confequence  to  the  individual.  Society,  know- 
ledge, virtue,  and  benevolence,  are  our  only  rational  en- 
joyments, arid  ought  to  be  cultivated  with  diligence. 

With  regard  to  animals  in  general,  the  actual  duration 
of  their  lives  is  very  different.  But  the  comparative 
fhortriefs  or  length  of  life,  in  particular  animals,  proba- 
bly depends  on  the  quicknefs  or  ilownefs  of  the  ideas  which 
pals  in  their  minds,  or  of  the  impreffions  made  upon  their 
fenfes.  A  rapid  fucceflion  of  ideas  or  impreffions  makes 
time  feem  proportionally  long.  There  is  likewife  a  con- 
nection between  the  quicknefs  and  Ilownefs  of  ideas,  and 
the  circulation  of  the  blood.  A  man  whofe  pulfe  is  flow 
and  fluggifh,  is  generally  dull  and  phlegmatic.  Raife 
the  fame  man's  pulfe  with  wine,  or  any  other  exhilarat- 
ing ftimulus,  and  you  immediately  quicken  his  fenfations, 
as  well  as  the  train  of  his  ideas.  In  all  young  animals, 
the  circulation  of  blood  is  much  more  rapid  than  after 
they  have  acquired  their  full  growth.  Young  animals, 
accordingly,  are  frolickfome,  vivacious,  and  happy.  But, 

when 

*  See  Evelyn's  Sjrlva,  pag.  500.    S. 


462  THE    PHILOSOPHY 

when  their  growth  is  completed,  the  motion  of  the  blood 
is  flower,  and  their  manners,  of  courfe,  are  more  fedate, 
gloomy,  and  penfive.  Another  circumftance  merits  at- 
tention. The  circulation  of  the  blood  is  flower  or  quicker 
in  proportion  to  the  magnitude  of  animals.  In  large 
animals,  fuch  as  man  and  quadrupeds,  the  blood  moves 
flowly,  and  the  fucceffion  of  their  ideas  is  proportionally 
flow.  In  the  more  minute  kinds,  as  mice,  fmall  birds, 
fquirrels,  &c.  the  circulation  is  fo  rapid  that  the  pulfes  of 
their  arteries  cannot  be  counted.  Now,  animals  of  this 
defeription  aftonilh  us  with  the  quicknefs  of  their  move- 
ments, the  vivacity  of  their  manners,  and  the  extreme 
chearfulnefs  of  their  difpofitions. 

Reaumur,  Condillac,  and  many  other  philofophers, 
coniider  duration  as  a  relative  idea,  depending  on  a  train 
of  confcious  perception  and  fentiment.  It  is  certain  that 
the  natural  meafure  of  time  depends  folely  on  the  fuc- 
ceffion of  our  ideas.  Were  it  poffible  for  the  mind  to  be 
totally  occupied  with  a  fmgle  idea  for  a  day,  a  week,  or 
a  month,  thefe  portions  of  time  would, appear  to  be  no- 
thing more  than  fo  many  inftants.  Hence  a  philofopher 
often  lives  as  long  in  one  day,  as  a  clown  or  a  favage 
does  in  a  week  or  a  month  fpent  in  mental  inactivity  and 
wane  of  thought. 

This  fubject  Jhali  be  concluded  with  a  fmgle  remark : 
If  it  be  true,  and  we  are  certain  that  it  is  fo  in  part,  that 
animals  of  every  fpecies,  whatever  be  the  real  duration 
of  their  lives,  from  a  flow  or  rapid  fucceffion  of  ideas, 
and  perhaps  from  the  comparative  intenfity  of  their  en- 
joyments, live  equally  long,  and  enjoy  an  equal  portion 
of  individual  happinefs,  it  opens  a  wonderful  view  of  the 
great  benevolence  of  Nature.  To  (lore  every  portion  of 
this  globe  with  animal  life,  She  has  amply  peopled  the 
earth,  the  air,  and  the  waters.  The  multifarious  inha- 
bitants of  thefe  elements,  as  to  the  actual  duration  of  their 
lives,  are  extremely  diverfified.  But,  by  variation  of 
forms,  of  magnitude,  of  rapidity  of  ideas,  of  intenfity 
of  pleafures,  and,  perhaps,  of  many  other  circumitances, 
She  has  conferred  upon  the  whole  nearly  an  equal  portion 
of  happinefs. 

CHAP. 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          463 


CHAPTER       XXII. 

Of  the  Progrejfive  Scale  or  Chain  of  Brings  in  the  Univerfe* 


TO  men  of  obfervation  and  reflection,  it  is  apparent, 
that  all  the  beings  on  this  earth,  whether  animals 
or  vegetables,  have  a  mutual  connection  and  a  mutual 
dependence  on  each  other.  There  is  a  graduated  fcale 
or  chain  of  exiftence,  not  a  link  of  which,  however  feem- 
ingly  infignificant,  could  be  broken  without  affecting  the 
whole.  Superficial  men,  or,  which  is  the  fame  thing, 
men  who  avoid  the  trouble  of  ferrous  thinking,  wonder 
at  the  delign  of  producing  certain  infects  and  reptiles. 
But  they  do  not  confider  that  the  annihilation  of  any  one 
of  thefe  fpecies,  though  fome  of  them  are  inconvenient, 
and  even  noxious  to  man,  would  make  a  blank  in  Na- 
ture, and  prove  defiructive  to  other  fpecies,  who  feed 
upon  them.  Thefe,  in  their  turn,  would  be  the  caufe 
of  deftroying  other  fpecies,  and  the  fyftem  of  devastation 
would  gradually  proceed,  till  man  himfelf  would  be  ex- 
tirpated, and  leave  this  earth  deftitute  of  all  animation. 
In  the  chain  of  animals,  man  is  unqueflionably  the 
chief  or  capital  link,  and  from  him  all  the  other  links 
defcend  by  almoit  imperceptible  gradations.  As  a  highly- 
rational  animal,  improved  with  fcience  and  arts,  he  is, 
in  fome  meafure,  related  to  beings  of  a  fuperior  orderr 
wherever  they  exift.  By  contemplating  the  works  of  Na- 
ture, he  even  rifes  to  fome  faint  ideas  of  her  great  Au- 
thor. Why,  it  has  been  afked,  are  not  men  endowed 
with  the  capacity  and  powers  of  angels  ?  beings  of  whom 
we  have  not  even  a  conception.  With1  the  fame  propri- 
ety, it  may  be  afked,  Why  have  not  beafts  the  mental 
powers  of  men?  Queftions  of  this  kind  are  the  refults  of 
ignorance,  which  is  always  petulant  and  prefumptuous. 

Every 


464  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

Every  creature  is  perfect,  according  to   its  deftination,' 
Raife  or  deprefs  any  order  of  beings,  the  whole  fyiiem, 
of  courfe,  will  be  deranged,  and  a  new  world  would  be 
neceffary  to  contain  and  fupport  them.     Particular  orders 
of  beings  (hould  not  be  coniidered  feparately,  but  by  the 
rank  they  hold  in  the  general  fyftem.  -   From  man  to  the 
minuted  animalcule  which  can  be  difcovered   by  the  mi- 
crofcope,  the  chafm  feems  to  be  infinite :  But  that  chafm 
is  actually  filled  up  with  fentient  beings,  of  which  the 
lines  of  difcrimination  are  almoft  imperceptible.     All  of 
them  poflefs  degrees  of  perfection  or  of  excellence  pro- 
portioned to  their  ftation  in  the  univerfe.     Even  among 
mankind,  which  is  a  particular  fpecies,  the  fcale  of  intel- 
lect is  very  extenfive.     What  a  difference  between  an  en- 
lightened philofopher  and  a  brutal  Hottentot  ?  Still,  how- 
ever. Nature  obferves,  for  the  wifeil  purpofes,   her  uni- 
form plan  of  gradation.     In  the  human  fpecies,  the  de- 
grees of  intelligence  are  extremely  varied.     Were  all  men 
philofophers,  the  bufinefs  of  life  could  not  be  executed, 
and  neither  fociety,  nor  even  the  fpecies,  could  long  exift. 
Induftry,  various  degrees  of  knowledge,  different  difpo- 
fitions,  and  different  talents,  are  great  bonds^of  fociety. 
The  Gentoos,  from  certain  political  and  religious  inltitu- 
tions,  have  formed  their  people  into  different  cads  or 
ranks,  out  of  which  their  posterity  can  never  emerge. 
To  us,  fuch  inftitutions  appear  to  be  tyrannical,  and  re- 
ftraints  on  the  natural  liberty  of  man.     In  fome  refpects 
they  are  fo  :  But  they  feem  to  have  been  originally  refults 
of  wifdom  and  obfervation ;  for,  independently  of  all  po- 
litical inftitutions,  Nature  herfelf  has  formed  the  human 
fpecies  into  cafts  or  ranks.     To  fome  me  gives  fuperior 
genius  and  mental  abilities  ;  and,  even  of  thefe,  the  views, 
the  purfuits,  and  the  taftes,  are  moft  wonderfully  diver- 
iified. 

In  the  talents  and  qualities  of  quadrupeds  of  the  fame 
fpecies,  there  are  often  remarkable  differences.  Thefe 
differences  are  confpicuous  in  the  various  races  of  horlcs, 
dogs,  &c.  Even  among  the  fame  races,  fome  are  bold, 
fprightly,  and  fagacious.  Others  are  comparatively  timid, 
phlegmatic,  and  dull. 

Our 


OP    NATURAL    HISTORY.          465 

Our  knowledge  of  the  chain  of  intellectual  and  corpo- 
real beings  is  very  imperfect ;  but  what  we  do  know  gives 
us  exalted  ideas  of  that  variety  and  progreffion  which 
reign  in  the  univerfe.  A  thick  cloud  prevents  us  from 
recognifmg  the  mod  beautiful  and  magnificent  parts  of 
this  immenfe  chain  of  being.  We  fhall  endeavour,  how- 
ever, to  point  out  a  few  of  the  more  obvious  links  oflj 
that  chain,  which  falls  under  our  own  limited  obfervationV 

Man,  even  by  his  external  qualities,  (lands  at  the  head 
of  this  world.  His  relations  are  more  extenfive,  and  his 
form  more  advantageous,  than  thofe  of  any  other  animal* 
His  intellectual  powers,  when  improved  by  fociety  and 
fcience,  raife  him  fo  high,  that,  if  no  degrees  of  excel- 
lence exifted  among  his  own  fpecies,  he  would  leave  a 
great  void  in  the  chain  of  being.  Were  we  to  confider 
the  charaders,  the  manners,  and  the  genius  of  different 
nations,  of  different  provinces  and  towns,  and  even  of 
the  members  of  the  fame  family,  we  fhould  imagine  that 
the  fpecies  of  men  were  as  various  as  the  number  of  in- 
dividuals. How  many  gradations  may  be  traced  between 
a  ftupid  Huron,  or  a  Hottentot,  and  a  profound  philofo- 
pher  ?  Here  the  diftance  is  immenfe ;  but  Nature  has  oc- 
cupied the  whole  by  almoft  infinite  fhades  of  difcrimina- 
tion. 

In  defcending  the  fcale  of  animation,  the  next  ftep,  it 
is  humiliating  to  remark,  is  very  fliort.  Man,  in  his 
lowed  condition,  is  evidently  linked,  both  in  the  form  of 
his  body  and  the  capacity  of  his  mind,  to  the  large  and 
fmall  orang-outangs.  Thefe  again,  by  another  flight  gra- 
dation, are  connected  to  the  apes,  who,  like  the  former, 
have  no  tails.  It  is  wonderful  that  Linnasus,  and  many 
other  naturalifts,  fhould  have  overlooked  this  gradation 
in  the  fcale  of  animals,  and  maintained,  that  the  iiland  of 
Nicobar,  and  fome  other  parts  of  the  Eafl-Indies,  were 
inhabited  by  tailed  men.  Before  thofe  animals,  whofe  ex- 
ternal figure  has  the  greateft  refemblance  to  that  of  man, 
are  ornamented,  or  rather  deformed,  with  tails,  there  are 
feveral  fhades  of  difcrirnination.  The  larger  and  fmall er 
orang-outangs,  which  are  real  brutes,  have  no  tails.  J&i- 

N  n  n  ther 


466    ,  THE     PHILOSOPHY 

ther  are  the  numerous  tribes  of  apes  furnifhed  with  this 
appendage.  But  the  believers  in  tailed  men  gravely  tell 
us,  that  there  is  nothing  furprifing  in  this  phenomenon, 
becaufe  a  tail  is  only  a  prolongation  of  the  os  coccygis, 
which  is  the  termination  of  the  back-bone.  They  confi- 
der  not,  however,  that,  inflead  of  accounting  for  the 
xiflence  of  tailed  men,  they  do  nothing  more  than 
bflitute  a  learned  circumlocution  for  the  fimple  word 
tail.  It  is  here  worthy  of  remark,  that  a  philofopher, 
who  has  paid  little  attention  to  natural  hiftory,  is  perpe- 
tually liable  to  be  deceived  ;  and  that  a  naturalift,  I  mean 
a  nomenclator,  without  philofophy,  though  he  may  be 
ufeful  by  mechanically  marking  diftin&ions,  is  incapable 
of  enriching  our  minds  with  general  ideas.  A  proper 
mixture  of  the  two  is  bed  calculated  to  produce  a  real 
phiiofopher.  From  the  orang-outangs  and  apes  to  the 
baboons,  the  interval  is  hardly  perceptible.  The  true 
apes  have  no  tails,  and  thofe  of  the  baboons  are  very 
fhort.  The  monkeys,  who  form  the  next  link,  have  long 
tails,  and  terminate  this  partial  chain  of  imitative  ani- 
mals, which  have  fuch  a  deteftable  refemblance  to  the 
human  frame  and  manners. 

When  examining  the  chara&ers  by  which  beings  are 
diflinguifhable  from  each  other,  we  perceive  that  fome  of 
them  are  more  general,  and  include  a  greater  variety  than 
others.  From  this  circumftance  all  our  diflributions  into 
clafles,  orders,  genera,  and  fpecies,  are  derived.  Between 
two  clafles,  or  two  genera,  however,  Nature  always  ex- 
hibits intermediate  productions  fo  clofely  allied,  that  it  is 
extremely  difficult  to  afcertain  to  which  of  them  they  be- 
long. The  polypus,  which  multiplies  by  fhoots,  or  by 
fections,  from  its  body,  connects  the  animal  to  the  vege- 
table kingdom.  Thole  worms  which  lodge  in  tubes  com- 
pofed  of  fand,  feem  to  link  the  infects  to  the  fhell  and 
cmftaceous  animals.  Shell-animals  and  cruftaceous  infects 
make  alfo  a  near  approach  to  each  other.  Both  of  them 
have  their  mufcles  and  inftruments  of  motion  attached  to 
external  inftead  of  internal  bones.  From  reptiles,  the  de- 
of  perfection  in  animal  life  and  powers  move  for- 
ward 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.          467 

ward  in  a  gradual  but  perceptible  manner.     The  number 
of  their  organs  of  fenfe,  and  the  general  conformation 
of  their  bodies,  begin  to  have  a  greater  analogy  to  the 
ftructure  of  thofe  animals  which  we  are  accuftomed   to 
confider  as  belonging  to  the  more  perfect  kinds.     The 
make,  by  its  form,  its  movements,  and  its  mode  of  living, 
is  evidently  connected  with  the  eel  and  the  water-ferpent^ 
Like  reptiles,  moil  fifties  are  covered  with  fcales,  the  co- 
lours and  variety  of  which  often  enable  us  to  diflinguifh 
one  fpecies  from  another.     The  forms  of  fifties  are  ex- 
ceedingly various.     Some  are  long  and  (lender  ;  others 
are  broad  and  contracted.     Some  fifties  are  flat,  others 
cylindrical,  triangular,  fquare,  circular,  &c.     The  fins  of 
fifties,  from  the  medium  in  which  they  live,  are  analogous 
to  the  wings  of  birds.     Like  thofe  of  reptiles,  the  heads 
of  fifties  are  immediately  connected  to  their  bodies,  with- 
out the  intervention  of  necks.     The  flying  fifties,  whofe 
fins  refemble  the  wings  of  bats,  form  one  link  which 
unites  the  fifties  to  the  feathered  tribes.     Aquatic  birds 
fucceed,  by  a  gentle  gradation,  the  flying  fifties. 

In*  tracing  the  gradations  from  fifties  to  quadrupeds, 
the  tranfition  is  almoft  imperceptible.  The  fea-lion,  the 
morfe,  all  the  cetaceous  tribes,  the  crocodile,  the  turtle, 
the  feals,  have  fuch  a  refemblance,  both  in  their  external 
and  internal  ftructure,  to  terreftrial  quadrupeds,  that  fome 
naturalifls,  in  their  methodical  diftributions,  have  ranked 
them  under  the  fame  clafs  of  animals.  The  bats  and  the 
flying  fquirrels,  who  traverfe  the  air  by  means  of  mem- 
branous inftead  of  feathered  wings,  evidently  connect 
quadrupeds  with  birds.  The  oftrich,  the  caflbwary,  and 
the  dodo,  who  rather  run  than  fly,  form  another  link  be- 
tween" the  quadruped  and  the  bird. 

All  the  fubftances  we  recognize  on  this  earth  may  be 
divided  into  organifed  and  animated,  organifed  and  ina- 
nimated,  and  unorganifed,  or  brute,  matter.  The  whole 
of  thefe  poflefs  degrees  of  perfection,  of  excellence,  or 
of  relative  utility,  proportioned  to  their  Rations  or  ranks 
in  the  univerfe.  Change  thefe  ftations  or  ranks,  and  an- 
other world  would  be  neceflary  to  contain  and  fupport 

them. 


468  T  H  E    P  H  I  L  O  S  O  P  H  Y 

them.  Beings  mud  not  be  contemplated  individually, 
but  by  their  rank,  and  the  relations  they  have  to  the  con- 
fluent parts  of  the  general  fyftern  of  Nature.  Certain 
remits  of  their  natures  we  confider  as  evils.  Deftroy 
thefe  evils,  and  you  annihilate  the  beings  who  complain 
of  them.  The  reciprocal  action  of  the  fclids  and  fluids 
conflitutes  life,  and  the  continuation  of  this  action  is  the 
natural  caufe  of  death.  Immortality  on  this  earth,  there-, 
fore,  prefuppofes  another  fyi'tem ;  for  our  planet  has  no 
relation  to  immortal  beings.  Every  animal,  and  every 
plant,  rifes,  by  gentle  gradations,  from  an  embryo,  or 
gelatinous  (late,  to  a  certain  degree  of  perfection  exactly 
proportioned  to  their  feveral  orders.  An  afiemblage  of 
all  the  orders  of  relative  perfection  conftitutes  the  abfo- 
lute  perfection  of  the  whole.  All  the  planets  of  this  fyf- 
tem  gravitate  toward  the  fun  and  toward  each  other.  Our 
fyflem  gravitates  toward  other  fyftems,  and  they  to  ours. 
Thus  the  whole  univerfe  is  linked  together  by  a  gradual 
and  almofl  imperceptible  chain  of  exigences  both  animat- 
ed and  inanimated.  Were  there  no  other  argument  in 
favour  of  the  UNITY  of  DEITY,  this  uniformity  of  defign, 
this  graduated  concatenation  of  beings,  which  appears 
not  only  from  this  chapter,  but  from  many  other  parts  of 
the  book,  feems  to  be  perfectly  irrefragable. 

In  contemplating  Man,  as  at  the  head  of  thofe  animals 
with  which  we  are  acquainted,  a  thought  occurred,  that 
no  fentient  being,  whofe  mental  powers  were  greatly  fupe- 
rior,  could  poflibly  live  and  be  happy  in  this  world.  If 
fuch  a  being  really  exifted,  his  mifery  would  be  extreme. 
With  fenfes  more  delicate  and  refined ;  with  perceptions 
more  acute  and  penetrating  ;  with  a  tafte  fo  exquifite  that 
the  objects  around  him  could  by  no  means  gratify  it ; 
obliged  to  feed  upon  nourifhment  too  grofs  for  his  frame  ; 
he  muft  be  born  only  to  be  miferable,  and  the  continua- 
tion of  his  exiftence  would  be  utterly  impoflible.  Even 
in  our  preient  condition,  the  famenefs  and  infipidity  of 
objects  and  purfuits,  the  futility  of  pleafure,  and  the  in- 
finite fources  of  excruciating  pain,  are  fupported  with 
great  difficulty  by  cultivated  and  refined  minds.  Increafe 
our  fenfibilities,  continue  the  fame  objects  and  fituation, 

and 


OF    NATURAL    HISTORY.     .     469 

and  no  man  could  bear  to  live. — Let  man,  therefore,  be 
contented.  His  ftation,  in  the  univeriai  icale  of  Nature, 
is  fixed  by  Wifdom.  Let  him  contemplate  and  admire 
the  works  of  his  Creator ;  let  him  fill  up  his  rank  with 
dignity,  and  confider  every  partial  evil  as  a  caufe  or 
an  effecl:  of  general  good. — This  is  the  whole  duty  of 
man. 


THE    END. 


N      D      E        X. 


ACTINIA.     See  fea-nettle. 

Air,  neceflary  to  the  exiftence  of  all  animals  and  vegetables,  101. 
Air-cells  in  birds  defcribed,  108.  Temporary  inftruments  fome- 
times  provided  for  its  admiflion  into  animal  bodies,  106.  Some 
animals  can  live  long  without  it,  113.  Air  is  always  impreg- 
nated with  odorous  particles,  151.  The  medium  of  founds,  156. 

Amphibious  animals.  See  animals.  Sketch  of  their  ftructure  and 
difpofitions,  66.  The  foramen  ovale  of  their  hearts  continue 
open  during  life,  67. 

Analogy.  See  animals  and  plants.  Analogy  between  birds  and 
fifties,  no.  Sexes  of  plants  founded  on  falfe  analogies,  224, 
See  fexes. 

Animal  heat.     An  attempt  to  account  for  it,  103. 

Animalcules.  Thofe  obtained  by  infufions  multiply  by  continued 
divifions  and  fubdivifions,  -36. 

Animals.  Difficulty  of  diftinguifhing  them  from  plants,  10. 
See  plants.  All  of  them  endowed  with  fenfation,  15.  A  Iketch 
of  their  ftru&ure  und  organs,  21.  Analogies  between  animals 
and  plants,  originating  from  their  ftru&ure  and  organs,  ibid. 
— from  their  growth  and  nourifhment,  30.  The  food  of  ani- 
mals compared  with  that  of  plants,  31.  Analogies  from  their 
difle  mi  nation  and  decay,  35,  &c.  Some  animals  neither  vivi- 
parous nor  oviparous,  37  ;  fome  are  both,  38  ;  and  fome  mul- 
tiply without  impregnation,  ibid.  Analogies  between  the  eggs 
©f  animals  and  the  feeds  of  plants,  39.  All  animals  fubjecl:  to 
difeafes  and  death,  44.  Of  the  organs  and  general  ftru&ure  of 
animals,  47.  Structure  of  man,  .ibid.  Of  the  bones,  ibid. 
Of  the  mufcular  parts,  49.  Of  the  lungs,  50.  Of  the  fto- 
mach  and  inftruments  ofdigeftion,  ibid.  Of  the  organs  of  ge- 
neration, 51.  Of  the  brain  and  nerves,  53.  Of  the  ftrucbire 
of  quadrupeds,  55.  The  general  ftruclure  of  quadrupeds  has  a 
great  refemblance  to  that  of  man,  56.  Peculiarities  in  the  ftruc- 
ture  of  carnivorous  animals,  58  ;  and  of  the  herbivorous  tribes, 
59.  Sketch  of  the  ftru&ure  of  amphibious  animals,  66.  Sketch 
ef  the  ftru&ure  of  birds,  71.  Of  the  ftruclure  of  fifties,  77. 

The 


47*  INDEX. 

The  comparative  ftrength  of  animals  depends  not  on  ftru&urc 
alone,  99.  Of  their  refpiration,  loo.  Moft  animals  capable 
of  expreffing  their  wants  and  defires,  106.  Of  their  motions, 
125,  &c.  The  notion  that  animals  are  machines  abfurd,  146. 
Of  the  infancy  of  animals,  180.  Their  general  diffufion  over 
the  globe  owing  partly  to  the  diverfity  of  their  appetites  for  food, 
2oi.  Of  the  fexes  of  animals,  215.  Of  the  puberty  of  ani- 
mals, 239.  All  animals  undergo  changes  at  the  age  of  puber- 
ty, 241.  Their  attachment  to  their  young,  246.  This  attach- 
ment ceafes,  in  fome  animals,  as  foon  as  the  young  can  pro- 
vide for  themfelves,  250.  Many  of  them  marry  or  pair,  ibid. 
Advantages  derived  from  the  variety  of  feafons  obferved  by  dif- 
ferent animals,  253.  Table  of  their  relative  fecundity,  255. 
Of  their  transformations,  258.  All  animals  undergo  changes, 
ibid.  Cruftaceous  tribes  annually  cart  their  fhells,  261.  Of  the 
habitations  of  animals,  279.  Operations  of  animals  referred 
by  fome  authors  to  mechanical  impulfes,  301.  Of  their  hof- 
ftilities,  336.  Man  the  moft  univerfal  deftroyer  of  animal  life, 
337.  Some  animals  devour  their  own  fpecies,  345.  Advan- 
tages derived  from  animals  preying  upon  one  another,  350. 
Profufion  af  animal  life  feems  to  be  a  general  intention  of  Nature, 
352-  There  is  a  wonderful  balance  in  the  fyftem  of  animal 
deft  ruction  and  multiplication,  353.  Reftraints  againft  noxious 
inundations  of  particular  fpecies,  354.  Animals  not  deftined 
for  individual  exiftence  alone,  357.  Of  the  artifices  of  ani- 
mals, 358.  Of  the  fociety  of  animals,  371.  Of  gregarious 
animals  who  carry  on  no  common  operations,  387.  Different 
fpecies  aflbciate,  388.  Of  their  docility,  389.  Animals  of  the 
ox-kind  dull  and  phlegmatic,  408.  Much  influenced  by  cli- 
mate and  domeftication,  412,  &c.  Of  the  characters  of  ani- 
mals, 415.  Of  their  principle  of  imitation,  419.  Of  the  mi- 
gration of  animals,  422.  Of  their  longevity,  449,  &c.  Thofe 
which  grow  quickly  foon  perifh,  453.  All  animals  perfect  ac- 
cording to  their  deftination,  464. 

Ants.  Their  ftru&ure  and  manners,  93.  Wood-ants,  their  ftir- 
prifing  operations  and  manners.  See  termites.  Their  fociety, 
386. 

Aphis.     See  puceron. 

Apterous  infects  defcribed,  94. 

Arabians  confider  the  camel  as  a  gift  fent  from  heaven,  65.  Per- 
form journies  of  fifty  leagues  in  one  day,  66. 

Aranea.      See  fpiders. 

Arteries.    The  probable  inftruments  of  nutrition  arid  growth,  108. 

Artifices.  General  fources  of  the  artifices  of  animals,  358.  Arti- 
fices of  cattle,  horfes,  and  monkeys,  359.  Of  the  flag,  ibid. 
Of  the  fallow-deer,  360.  Of  the'roebuck,  361.  Of  the  hare, 
.362.  Of  the  fox,  363.  Of  the  glutton,  365.  OftheKamt- 

fchatkn, 


INDEX.  473 

fchatka  rats,  366.  Of  birds,  ibick  Of  fifhes,  368.  Of  in- 
feels,  369. 

Afbeftos.  Its  ftru&ure  makes  no  approach  toward  organization, 
19. 

Aureliae.     See  chryfalids. 

B 

Beavers.  Account  of  their  manners  and  architecture,  281.  Live 
peaceably  in  Society  with  each  other,  284.  Lay  up  provifions- 
for  winter,  ibid. 

Bees.  The  general  ftru&ure  of  the  honey-bee,  93.  The  mafon- 
bee  fometimes  moves  in  a  retrograde  direction,  135.  Some  of 
their  inftincls  enumerated,  139.  Wood-piercing  bee  makes  a 
neft  in  old  timber,  ibid.  When  pinched  for  room,  they  aug- 
ment the  depth  of  their  cells,  142.  Neft  of  the  mafori-bee, 
293.  Ichneumon  flies  deftrucT:ive  to  bees,  293.  Operations 
of  wood-piercing*bees,  296.  Of  other  folitary  bees,  300.  Ope- 
rations and  ceconomy  of  the  honey-bee,  302,  The  figure  and 
mode  of  making  their  cells,  303.  Their  cells  are  deftined  to 
anfwer  different  purpofes,  304.  Their  divifion  of  labour,  305. 
Their  wax  a  refult  of  a  digeftive  procefs,  ibid.  Eat  the  farina 
of  flowers,  ibid.  306.  Require  a  warm  habitation,  307.  Mend 
their  hives  with  propolis,  ibid.  Amafs  great  quantities  of  ho- 
ney, 308.  Occafionally  feed  on  one  another,  ibid.  Eggs  of  the 
female  impregnated  by  the  males  after  they  are  depofited  in  the 
£ells,  310.  Can  transform  a  common  fubjecl:  into  a  queen  or 
female,  312.  May  be  multiplied  without  end,  314.  The  neu- 
ters maflacre  the  males,  348.  Have  frequent  combats,  349. 
Their  fociety  of  a  monarchical  nature,  377.  The  Count  de 
BufFon's  mechanical  theory  of  the  operations  of  bees  examined, 
378,  &c. 

Beetle  tribe  of  infecls.  An  account  of  their  form  and  manners, 
88.  Many  of  them,  when  terrified,  fimulate  death,  141.  Re- 
markable differences  between  fome  of  the  males  and  females,  2i8. 

Beings  fhould  not  be  contemplated  individually,  but  by  their  rank, 
467,  None  fuperior  to  man  could  exift  in  this  world,  468. 

Birds.  Sketch  of  their  ftru&ure,  71,  Their  form  adapted  to 
their  mode  of  living,  72.  Of  granivorous  birds,  73.  Analo- 
gy between  them  and  herbivorous  quadrupeds,  74.  Of  car- 
nivorous birds,  75,  344.  Birds  refpire  by  almoft  every  part  of 
their  bodies,  and  even  by  the  bones,  107.  One  ufe  of  this 
ftru&ure,  109.  Analogy  between  birds  and  fifhes,  113.  When 
not  reftrained,  uniformly  build  nefts  in  the  fame  form,  and  of 
the  fame  materials,  140.  The  great  comminuting  force  of 
fome  of  their  ftomachs,  206.  Whether  the  fmall  Hones  they 
fwallow  affift  the  digeftion  of  their  food,  208.  Among  birds 
0f  prey,  the  females  are  larger,  ftronger,  and  more  beautiful, 

O  o  o  than 


474  INDEX. 

than  the  males,  220.  The  reverfe  takes  place  among  the  gal- 
linaceous tribes,  ibid.  Many  of  them  pair,  249.  Changes 
they  undergo  after  being  hatched,  257.  Of  their  nidification, 
250,  252.  Of  their  artifices,  366.  Some  of  them  may  be 
taught  articulation,  410.  Of  their  migration,  422,  &c.  Of 
their  longevity,  455. 

Bifons.     See  oxen. 

Blatta.     See  cockroach,  89. 

Blood.  Its  circulation  connected  with  refpiration,  103.  Show- 
ers of  it  accounted  for,  271. 

Bones.     Birds  breathe  through  them,  107. 

Brackeleys,  a  fpecies  of  the  ox,  which  are  taught  by  the  Africans 
to  perform  wonderful  actions,  408,  &c. 

Brain.     See  nerves. 

Brain,  A  ftort  defcription  of  it,  53.  The  fource  of  all  fenfa- 
tion  and  motion,  126.  Suppofed  to  fecrete  and  diftribute  the 
nutritious  matter  of  food,  192. 

Breathing.     See  refpiration. 

Brutes.     See  animals. 

Bug.     Some  account  of  it,  90. 

Butterflies.  Defcription  of  them,  90.  Gave  rife  to  the  notion 
of  fhowers  of  blood,  271.  Void  drops  of  blood,  272. 

C 

Cabins.     See  Beavers, 

Camel  and  dromedary,  befide  four  ftomachs,  have  a  refervoir  for 
holding  water,  65.  Their  manners  and  difpoiitions,  66. 

Camel-cricket,     Regarded  as  a  {'acred  animal,  89. 

Carnivorous  animals.  See  animals.  Their  ftru6lure  adapted  to 
their  difpofitions,  58.  Are  not  fo  apt  to  devour  women  as 
men,  217.  Man  the  moft  rapacious  of  all  animals,  337.  Of 
carnivorous  quadrupeds,  339.  Of  carnivorous  birds,  342.  Of 
carnivorous  infects,  344.  Advantages  derived  from  animals 
preying  upon  one  another,  350.  Carnivorous  animal?  are  the 
barriers  againft  noxious  inundations  of  other  kinds,  354. 

Caterpillars,.  See  infects.  Their  mode  of  refpiring,  119.  Are 
of  no  fex,  218,  When  they  arrive  at  the  age  of  puberty,  142, 
Of  their  transformations,  269.  Caff  their  fkins,  262,  271. 
Their  different  modes  of  retiring  previous  to  their  transformati* 
on.  A  defcription  of  them,  263.  The  circulation  of  their  blood 
changes  its  direction,  264.  Their  different  modes  of  behav- 
ing when  about  to  transform,  266.  Spinning  of  the  {ilk-worm 
described,  269,  The  flies  exift  in  the  bodies  of  the  caterpillars, 
271.  Some  of  them  devour  their  own  fpecies,  345.  Have 
numberlefs  enemies,  ibid.  Without  a  profufion  of  them  fmall 
birds  could  not  be  fupported,  354.  Common  kind  aiTociate, 
383,  Some  of  them  are  republicans,  ibid. 

Caufe. 


INDEX.  475 

Caufe.     We  muft  at  laft  have  recourfe  to  a  final  caufe,  302. 

Cells.     See  bees,  and  wafps.     Air-cells  in  birds  defcribed,   107. 

Chain.     Of  the  progreflive  chain  of  being,  463. 

Changes  of  form.     See  transformations, 

Charaaers  of  animals,  415.  How  they  may  be  modified,  ibid. 
Individual  characters  often  ftrongly  marked,  416. 

Chermes.  The  female  of  this  mfeft  depofits  her  eggs  in  the 
leaves  of  trees,  and  produce  thofe  protuberances  called  galls,  90, 

Children.   See  infants.  The  gradual  progrefs  of  their  inftinas,  389. 

Chryfalids.     A  defcription  of  them,  262. 

Cirriex.     See  bug. 

Cinyps.     A  fly  whofe  eggs  produce  galls  in  the  oak,  92. 

Cleanlinefs.     Its  importance  to  health,   124. 

Cock.     The  game-cock  a  moft  intrepid  animal,  220. 

Cockroach.     Some  account  of  it,  89. 

Colours.  The  origin  of  the  primary  ones,  167.  A  mixture  of 
them  produces  whitenefs,  ibid.  Colour  no  fpecific  charader 
of  plants,  232.  Colours  of  animals  greatly  variegated  by  do- 
medication,  411. 

Coleopterous  infects  defcribed,  88. 

Combs.     See  bees,  and  wafps. 

Crabs.     An  account  of  the  migration  of  land-crabs,  446. 

Crows.  Experiments  on  their  digeftive  powers,  2IO.  Endea- 
vour to  break  grain  before  they  fwallow  it,  21 1. 

Cruftaceous  fifties  caft  their  (hells  annually,  261. 

Cuckoo  makes  no  neft,  and  neither  hatches  nor  feeds  her  young*  290* 

Culex.      See  gnat. 

Cuttle- fifh.     Its  ftruclure  and  manners,  97. 

D 

t)eath.  All  animals  and  vegetables  fubject  to  difTolution,  44. 
Life  cannot  be  fupported  without  the  intervention  of  death,  355. 
There  is  a  wonderful  balance  in  the  fyftem  of  animal  deftruc- 
tion  and  multiplication,  353.  The  general  caufes  of  death,  453. 

Deer.     Their  artifices  in  efcaping  the  dogs,  359. 

Deity  neceflarily  one,  468. 

Digeftion.  The  organs  of  digeftion  defcribed,  50.  The  me- 
chanical and  chemical  theories  of  it,  205.  Victuals  diflblved 
by  the  gaftric  juice,  206.  Whether  the  frnall  ft  ones  fwallowed 
by  birds  aflift  their  digeftion,  2o8.  Greatly  aififted  by  chewing, 
or  by  comminution,  209.  Dr.  Stevens's  experiments  upon  di- 
geftion in  man  and  other  animals,  212.  After  death,  the  fto- 
mach  is  diflblved  by  its  own  gaftric  juice,  214.  Bees  wax  a 
refult  of  digeftion,  305. 

Dipterous  infects  defcribed,  94. 

Docility  of  animals,  389,  &c. 

Dog.  His  fenfe  of  fmelling  extremely  acute,  153.  Wild  do?s 

hunt 


476  INDEX. 

hunt  in  packs,  388.  Next  to  the  elephant,  the  dog  is  tbc  rnoff 
docile  animal,  403.  Accommodates  his  behaviour  to  the  man- 
ners of  thofe  who  command  him,  ibid.  Great  differences  in 
their  natural  difpofitions,  ibid.  Conduct  blind  perfons  with 
great  fagacity,  404.  An  extraordinary  inftance  of  their  intel- 
ligence, 405.  The  influence  of  climate  upon  them,  413.. 
Fattened  in  China  for  the  table,  421. 

Domeftication.     Its  effects  on  different  animals,  411. 

Dragon-fly.     See  libella. 

Dromedary.     See  camel. 

E 

Eagles.     Their  longevity,  457. 

Ears.     See  hearing  and  fenfes.    Mufical  ear  a  gift  of  Nature,  I5gv 

Education  much  influenced  by  the  principle  of  imitation,  419. 

Eggs.  Analogies  between  them  and  the  feeds  of  plants,  39* 
Egg  of  the  fpider-fly  as  large  as  the  mother,  266.  Eggs  of 
fome  infects  grow  after  they  are  laid,  267.  Several  worms 
difcovered  in  the  fame  egg,  268.  Eggs  of  bees  impregnated 
after  they  are  depofited  in  the  cells,  311, 

Elephant.  His  ftructure,  68.  His  fagacity  and  manners,  70. 
A  more  particular  account  of  this  animal,  395,  &c.  A  mild 
and  obedient  domeftic,  397.  Elephants  were  formerly  employ- 
ed in  war,  398.  Their  fenfe  of  fmelling  very  acute,  400.  Re- 
vengeful when  affronted,  401  They  are  fenfible  of  good  for- 
tune, and  maintain  a  gravity  of  demeanour  correfponding  to 
the  dignity  of  their  fituation,  402.  They  allow  themfelves  to 
be  commanded  by  a  child,  ibid.  More  eafily  tamed  by  mild- 
nefs  than  by  blows,  ibid. 

Ephemeron-fly  lives  only  one  day  in  its  perfect  ftate,  but  conti- 
nues three  years  in  the  water  before  its  transformation,  89, 
459.  The  nymphs  refpire  by  gills,  118. 

Evils  neceflary  in  this  world,  468. 

Expiration.     See  refprration. 

Eyes.  No  animal,  except  the  infect  tribes,  has  more  than  two, 
83.  Defcription  of  the  eye,  166.  Inverted  pictures  on  the 
retina,  168.  Why  feen  ftraight,  ibid.  Why  we  fee  fingle 
with  two  eyes,  171.  Vifion  conveys  no  idea  of  diftance,  ibid. 
Why 'near  objects  appear  large,  and  diftant  ones  fmall,  172. 
Origin  of  ghofts,  &c.  ibid. 

F 

Fallow-deer.     His  artifices  and  manners,  359. 
Farina.     See  plants  and  fexes.     Farina -of  flowers  the  raw  mate- 
rial of  wax,  305. 

Feelers  of  infects.     One  ufe  of  them,  83. 

Females.  See  fexes,  man,  and  males.  Among  infects,  great 
differences  between  males  and  females,  218,  219.  Female  birds 

of 


INDEX.  477 

of  prey  larger,  ftronger,  and  more  beautiful  than  the  males, 
219.  The  reverfe  takes  place  among  gallinaceous  birds,  220. 
Changes  in  body  and  mind  produced  by  puberty,  239.  Arrive 
fooner  at  that  period  than  males,  240. 

Fire-fly.     Emits  a  mining  light  in  the  night,  89. 

Fifties.  Sketch  of  their  Structure,  77.  Much  diverfified  in  fi- 
gure, 78.  Are  endowed  with  the  fenfe  of  hearing,  79.  Their 
mode  of  refpiration,  112.  Analogy  between  them  and  birds, 
113.  We  are  ignorant  of  the  periods  when  they  become  fit 
for  multiplying,  242.  Cruftaceous  kinds  caft  their  fkins  annu- 
ally, 261.  The  life  of  every  fifti  one  continued  fcene  of  hof- 
tility,  343.  Shell-fifties  very  prolific,  356.  Their  artifices, 
368.  Of  their  migration,  442.  Their  longevity,  457. 

Flea.  A  defcription  of  it,  95.  Undergoes  a  transformation  like 
that  of  winged  infects,  ibid. 

Flies.  See  infects.  An  account  of  the  phrygania  or  fpring-fly, 
92.  Of  the  dragon-fly,  ibid.  Of  the  cinyps,  the  eggs  of 
which  give  rife  to  the  galls  on  oak  leaves,  ibid.  Gad-fly  very 
troublefome  to  cattle,  94.  Of  the  common  fly,  ibid.  Of  the 
gnat,  ibid.  Spider-fly  as  large  as  the  mother  when  it  efcapes 
from  the  egg,  203.  Some  depofit  their  eggs  in  the  leaves  of 
plants,  ibid.  Ichneumon  flies  deftructive  to  bees,  296 ;  and 
other  infects,  348. 

Food  of  plants  and  of  animals  compared,  30.  Man  could  not 
live  upon  herbage  alone,  61.  Food  neceflary  for  the  growth 
and  expanfion  of  all  organifed  beings,  191.  See  growth.  The 
general  ingredients  of  food,  197.  Rein-deer,  the  principal 
food  of  the  Laplanders,  ibid.  Animal  food  more  ufed  in  pro- 
portion as  people  recede  from  the  Equator,  198.  The  nature 
of  man's  food  determined  by  the  climate,  199.  Man  defigned 
by  Nature  to  feed  partly  on  animal  and  partly  on  vegetable  fub- 
itances,  ibid.  Living  long  on  a  particular  fpecies  of  food  is 
apt  to  create  difeafes,  200.  Diverfity  of  food  ufed  by  different 
fpecies  one  caufe  of  the  difFufion  of  animals  over  the  earth, 
201.  Every  animal  furnifhed  with  proper  inftruments  for  pro- 
curing food,  202.  Importance  of  feeding  all  young  animals 
well,  204.  Infects  which  feed  upon  carrion  never  attack  live 
animals,  ibid.  This  fact  eftabliftied  by  experiments,  ibid. 
Spallanzani's  experiments  upon  the  digeftion  of  food  by  various 
animals,  206. 

Foramen  ovale.  In  amphibious  animals  it  remains  open  during 
life,  67. 

Formica-leo.     Its  artifices  and  manners,  369. 

Forms  are  perpetually  changing,  276.     See  transformations. 

Fox.     His  artifices  and  manners,    363. 

Frogs.     Undergo  great  changes  in  their  form,  261. 

Fulgora.     See  fire-fly. 

i  /n 


478  INDEX. 

G 

Gad-fly,  extremely  troublefome  to  cattle,  both  in  its  caterpillar 
and  fly  ftate,  94. 

Gall-infe£ts.     Defcription  of  their  form  and  manners,  218. 

Galls.  See  chermes.  The  eggs  of  the  cinyps  give  rife  to  thofe 
on  oak  leaves,  92.  How  galls  are  formed,  267. 

Gaftric  juice.  See  digeftion  and  ftomach.  Its  folvent  power 
affifted  by  chewing,  209.  No  dead  animal  fubftance  can  refift 
its  power,  2n  ;  but  it  has  no  effect  upon  live  animals,  ibid. 
Diflblves  the  ftomach  after  death,  214. 

Generation.     See  multiplication. 

Gentoos.  Live  almoft  entirely  on  vegetables,  197.  Their  cafts 
founded  in  nature,  464. 

Germs.  Examination  of  Bonnet's  theory  of  them,  195.  See 
growth. 

Glow-worm.     See  worms. 

Glutton.     His  artifices  and  manners,  365. 

Gnat.     Account  of  it,  92. 

Goat-fucker,  a  bird  of  paflage,  432. 

Goofe.     Its  longevity,  456. 

Granivorous  birds.  Sketch  of  their  ftru&ure,  71.  Analogous 
to  herbivorous  quadrupeds,  72.  Their  gentle  manners,  ibid. 

Growth  of  animals  and  vegetables  extremely  analogous,  30,  &c. 
May  be  accelerated  or  retarded  by  certain  circumftances,  32. 
Buffon's  theory  of  growth,  191.  Nutrition  fuppofed  to  be  ef- 
fected by  the  brain  and  nerves,  192.  This  notion  rendered 
improbable,  ibid.  More  probable  that  the  nutritious  particles 
of  food  are  conveyed  and  applied  by  the  arteries,  193.  Bon- 
net's theory  of  germs  examined,  195.  Our  limited  concep- 
tions of  the  nature  of  growth  and  nourifhment,  196.  All 
animals  fuppofed  to  grow  after  birth,  203.  The  fpider-fly  af- 
fords an  exception,  ibid.  Remarkable  rapidity  of  growth  in 
fome  worms,  205.  Animals,  as  well  as  plants,  which  quick- 
ly arrive  at  maturity,  foon  perifti,  453. 

Grylius.     Some  account  of  it,  89. 

Guiney-pig  contracts  a  loofenefs  when  forced  to  eat  coleworts 
for  fome  time,  201. 

H 

Habitations  of  animals.  When  not  retrained,  animals  uniformly 
build  in  the  fame  ftile,  279.  Habitations  and  manners  of  the  Al- 
pine marmot,  280.  Of  the  beaver,  281,  &c.  Of  the  mole,  286. 
Of  birds,  287.  Defcription  of  the  eagle's  neft,  288.  Of  the 
magpie's  neft,  ibid.  Of  the  titmoufe's  neft,  289.  Of  penfile 
nefts,  ibid.  Of  the  neft  of  the  tailor-bird,  ibid.  Nefts  of 
fmall  birds,  291.  Of  water-fowls,  292,  Neft  of  the  mafon- 

bee, 


<      INDEX.  479 

bee,  293.  Of  the  wood-piercing  bee,  296.  Of  another  fo- 
litary  bee,  300.  Of  the  honey-bee,  302,  &c.  Of  the  wafps, 
314.  Of  the  termites  or  wood-ants,  323.  Of  the  common 
caterpillar,  381.  Of  the  proceflionary  caterpillar,  383. 

Hares.     Their  artifices  in  efcaping  the  dogs,  362. 

Health  promoted  by  moderate  laughing,   105. 

Hearing.  Fifties  endowed  with  that  fenfe,  79.  The  inftruments 
and  caufes  of  hearing,  156.  Why  infants  hear  bluntly,  158. 
The  pleafures  derived  from  hearing,  159.  The  fource  of  ar- 
tificial language,  160. 

Heat.     See  animal  heat. 

Hemipterous  infects.     Of  their  form  and  manners,  89. 

Herbivorous  quadrupeds.  See  animals.  Their  form  adapted  to 
their  difpofitions,  55. 

Hermaphrodites.  Some  infe&s  are  hermaphrodites,  221.  Many 
inftances  of  hermaphrodites  among  horfes,  black  cattle  and 
fheep,  ibid. 

Herrings  perform  extenfive  migrations,  443. 

Hippobofca.     See  horfe-fly. 

Hogs  aflbciate  and  defend  each  other,  388. 

Honey-bee.     See  bees. 

Horfe-fly.     Account  of  it,  94. 

Horfes.  When  attacked  by  any  rapacious  animal,  rank  up  in 
lines  to  defend  themfelves,  358.  One  a&s  as  a  centmel,  359. 
Aflbciate  with  oxen,  388.  The  gentlenefs  and  docility  of  their 
difpofitions,  406.  Notice  of  wild  horfes,  ibid.  Naturally  af- 
fociate  with  man,  408.  Their  emulation  and  warlike  temper, 
ibid.  Their  feats  in  exhibitions,  ibid. 

Hoftilities  of  animals,  336.  Man  the  moft  rapacious  and  the 
moft  univerfal  deftroyer,  333.  Of  rapacious  quadrupeds,  349. 
Of  rapacious  birds,  342.  Every  fifh  rapacious,  343.  Of  ra- 
pacious infects,  344.  Man  not  the  only  animal  that  makes 
war  with  his  own  fpecies,  348.  Neuter  bees  maflacre  the 
males,  ibid.  Bees  frequently  fight  with  each  other,  ibid.  In 
OdTiober,  wafps  maflacre  all  their  young,  349.  This  feeming 
cruelty  is  perhaps  an  a&  of  mercy,  ibid.  Hoftilities  of  ani- 
mals give  rife  to  mutual  improvement,  351.  There  is  a  won- 
derful balance  in  the  fyftem  of  animal  deftru&ion,  353. 

Hottentots.     Their  mode  of  training  and  inftru&ing  oxen,  408. 

Hunter,  Mr.  John.  His  account  of  the  refpiration  of  birds,  107. 
His  defcription  of  the  free-martin,  221. 

Hymenopterous  infefts.     Their  form  and  manners,  92. 

I 

Ichneumon  flies.     See  flies  and  bees. 

Imitation.     Its  effe&s  upon  animals  as  a  principle,  419. 

Infancy.     See  infants. 

Intellect. 


4*0  INDEX. 

Intellect.     The  degrees  of  it  extremely  varied  both   among  men 

.    and  other  animals,  465. 

Infants.  They  underftand  language  before  they  can  fpeak,  147. 
Hear  bluntly,  158.  Are  fond  of  noife,  ibid.  Invent,  at  the 
age  of  nine  or  twelve  months,  an  artificial  language,  161.  The 
condition  of  human  infants  confidered  as  miferable,  180.  This 
notion  invalidated,  181.  Fond  of  motion,  182.  The  me- 
thods of  managing  them  by  favages,  183  ;  and  by  northern  na- 
tions, 184.  Are  lefs  affe&ed  by  cold  than  at  any  other  period, 
185.  Their  lives  very  precarious,  ibid.  Caufes  of  their  dif- 
eafes  and  mortality,  186.  Sleep,  for  feveral  weeks,  almoft 
continually,  ibid.  Their  memory  weak,  and  why,  187.  Du- 
ration of  infancy  in  different  animals,  188.  Infant  ftate  of 
birds  fhort,  ibid.  Infancy  of  fifties,  ibid.  Of  infects,  ibid* 
The  ftrong  attachment  of  parents  to  their  young,  190. 

Infects.  A  Iketch  of  their  ftructure,  22,  22.  A  more  enlarged 
view  of  it,  82.  Divifion  of  infects  from-their  wings,  ibid.  Ufe  of 
their  feelers,  83.  Undergo  three  changes  of  form,  84.  Some  of 
them  endowe<]  with  the  fenfe  of  fmeJling,  85  ;  and  fome  probably 
with  that  of  hearing^  86.  Account  of  their  probofcis,  87.  Of  the 
form  and  manners  of  the  beetle  tribe,  88.  Of  the  forrr  and  man- 
ners of  the  hem  ipterous  tribe,  89.  Of  the  neuropterous  infects, 
91.  Of  hymenopterous  infects, "92.  Of  dipterous  infects,  94.  Of 
apterous  infects,  ibid.  Of  the  refpiration  of  infects,  1 13.  Exam- 
ples of  their  inftincts,  138.  Infects  have  few  inftincts,  145.  Thofe 
that  feed  upon  carrion  never  attack  live  animals,  202.  Great 
differences  between  fome  male  and  female  infects,  218.  Defcrip- 
tion  of  the  form  and  manners  of  gall-infe6ts,  ibid.  Infects  fup- 
pofed  to  impregnate  certain  plants,  227.  Changes  they  undergo 
before  their  age  of  puberty,  237.  Some  of  them  have  a  ftrong 
affection  to  their  young,  248.  Of  their  transformations,  262. 
Lives  of  winged  infects  confifts  of  three  principal  periods,  264. 
Their  internal  parts  changed  after  transformation,  ibid.  The 
behaviour  of  different  caterpillars  when  about  to  transform,  267. 
Their  transformation  is  only  the  throwing  off  temporary  cov- 
erings, 270,  Nefts  of  various  infects  defcribed,  293.  Some 
of  them  are  rapacious,  345.  Thoufands  of  them  daily  devour- 
ed by  cattle,  351.  Infects  afford  many  inftances  of  affociation, 
377.  Some  of  them  migrate,  441.  Are  fhort  lived,  459. 

Infpiration.     See  refpiration. 

Inftinct.  Reafons  why  it  has  been  fo  little  underftood,  136.  Di- 
vifion of  inftincts,  137.  Of  pure  inftincts,  ibid.  Examples  of 
it  in  the  human  ipecies,  ibid,  in  the  brute  creation,  138.  Of 
inftincts  which  can  accommodate  themfelves  to  peculiar  cir- 
cumftances,  141.  Of  inftincts  which  are  improveable  by  ex- 
perience and  obfervation,  143.  Superiority  of  man  arifes  from 
his  great  number  of  inftincts,  ibid.  Examples  of  modified, 

compounded. 


INDEX, 

(compounded,  or  extended  inftin&s,  144.  Inftinft  defined  and 
explained,  145.  Infe6h  have  few  inftincts,  ibid.  Inrtinfr.  pre- 
fuppofes  a  degree  of  intellect,  378.  The  gradual  progrefs  of 
inftin&s  in  children,  389.  When  they  begin  to  reafon  with 
fome  propriety,  390,  The  education  of  animals  depends  greatly 
on  the  principle  of  imitation,  420; 

Irritability  defcribed,  17.  Many  plants  are  endowed  with  this 
power,  1 8. 

L 

Lady-fly.     See  libella. 

Language.  Moft  animals  can  exprefs  their  wants  and  defires,  iO§j 
147,  161.  Artificial  a  refult  of  natural  language,  161.  The 
origin  of  the  great  diverfity  of  languages,  ibidi  Articulate 
language  peculiar  to  man,  373. 

Laplanders,     Live  chiefly  on  the  rein-deer,  197.     Fond  of  bear's 

flefli,  ibid. 
x  Laughing  defcribed,  105.     Not  peculiar  to  man,  ibid. 

Legs.  No  animal,  except  the  infect  tribes,  have  more  than  four, 
83. 

Libella.  A  defcription  of  it,  91.  Its  nymph  refpires  water,  117. 
A  rapacious  animal,  345. 

Life.  Our  ignorance  of  its  efTential  charac!:eriftics,  164  Its  du- 
ration longer  or  (liorter  according  to  the  fpecies,  44.  Lifd 
very  precarious  in  infancy,  185.  Lives  of  winged  infects  con- 
fift  of  three  principal  periods,  264.  Life  cannot  be  fupported 
without  the  intervention  of  death,  350.  A  profufion  of  animal 
life  feems  to  be  a  general  intention  of  Nature^  352.  Of  the 
duration  of  life  in  man  and  other  animals,  449,  &c<  Its  du^ 
ration  a  relative  idea,  461. 

Light.     Some  of  its  properties,    166.     Its  refrangibility,   167. 

Lobfters  caft  their  {hells  annually,  261. 

Longevity  of  animals,  449.  Some  remarkable  inftances  of  it  in 
the  human  fpecies,  450  ;  of  birds,  455  ;  of  quadrupeds,  ibidi 
of  a  toad,  458  ;  of  infects,  459 ;  of  plants,  460* 

Loufe.     Its  ftructure  and  manners,  95. 

.Love.  The  fource  of  many  important  advantages,  243.  Is  £ 
great  incentive  to  virtue,  ibid.  Bad  efFe6ts  of  too  early  mar- 
riages, 244;  and  of  imprudent  ones,  ibid-  Love  of  offspring 
a  fource  of  great  pleafures,  245 ;  remarkable  inftances  of  its 
ftrength,  246,  &c.  Marriage  or  pairing  frequently  exhibited 
in  the  brute  creation,  250.  Moft  animals  have  feafons,  253. 

Lumbricus.     See  worms. 

Lychnis  dioica.  Dr.  Hope's  experiments  upon  that  plant  exa- 
mined, 231,  232.  Female  lychnis  ripened  feeds  without  the 
poflibility  of  fexual  commixture,  233. 

Ppp  M 


482  i  N  D  E  r. 

/ 

M 

Magpies.     Defciiption  of  their  netts,  288. 

Males.  See  fexes,  and  man.  Differences  between  males  and 
females,  218,  219.  Changes  produced  by  puberty,  239.  In 
pairing  animals,  the  males  and  females  produced  are  nearly 
equal,  251. 

Man.  Of  his  ftructure  and  organs,  47.  From  his  internal  or- 
gans he  could  not  live  upon  herbage  alone,  61.  His  fuperio- 
rity  over  the  other  animals  derived  folely  from  his  mental  fa- 
culties, 63,  99,  145.  He  alone  is  endowed  with  the  faculty 
of  articulate  fpeech,  373.  The  moft  inconfiftent  of  all  ani- 
mals, 143.  His  inftincts  improveable  by  obfervation  and  ex- 
perience, ibid.  Defigned  by  Nature  to  live  partly  on  animal 
and  partly  on  vegetable  fubftances,  197.  His  texture  more 
firm  and  compact  than  that  of  woman,  215.  See  women. 
Changes  produced  by  puberty,  239.  After  puberty,  marriage 
is  his  natural  ftate,  241.  A  ftriking  inftance  of  his  parental 
affection,  246.  Undergoes  many  changes  in  form  after  birth, 
259.  His  mind  undergoes^  changes  as  well  as  his  body,  ibid. 
The  moft  rapacious  of  all  animals,  337.  Without  fociety, 
his  powers  are  limited,  339.  Not  the  only  animal  that  makes 
war  with  his  own  fpecies,  347.  The  moft  docile  of  all  animals, 
389.  His  body  capable  of  great  exertions,  390.  The  refem- 
blance  of  men  to  particular  animals  an  indication  of  their  dif- 
pofitions,  416.  Of  man's  longevity  and  diffolution,  44.9.  No 
being  fuperior  to  him  could  exift  in  this  world,  468. 

Manners  and  difpofitions  of  animals  connected  with  their  form 
and  ftructure,  55,  88,  99. 

Mantis.   See  camel-cricket. 

Marmot,  Alpine.  Defcription  of  its  architecture  and  manners, 
280. 

Marriage,  after  the  age  of  puberty,  is  the  natural  ftate  of  man, 
240.  Difadvantages  of  too  early  marriages,  244.  Bad  effects 
of  interefted  and  imprudent  ones,  ibid.  Arguments  in  favour 
of  monogamy,  250. 

Martin.     Mr.  Hunter's  account  of  the  free-martin,  22 1,  &c. 

Martins  are  birds  of  paffage,  432. 

Mafon-bee.     See  bee. 

Matter.     Its  vis  inertia,   126. 

Mechanifm  inadequate  to  account  for  animal  action,  301. 

Medufa  defcribed,  98.     Its  motions,  134. 

Memory  of  children  is  weak,  and  why,  187. 

Metamorphofes.    See  transformations. 

Migration  of  animals,  422.  Lifts  of  birds  of  paffage,  with  the 
times  of  their  arrival  and  departure,  432,  &c.  Partial  migra- 
tions, 438.  Principal  objects  of  migration,  ibid.  448,  Men 

have 


I    N    D    E    X.  483 

fcave  a  principle  of  migration,  439.  Quadrupeds  likewife  per- 
form partial  migrations,  440.  Migration  of  rats,  441  ;  of  frogs, 
ibid.  ;  of  fifties,  442  ;  of  land-crabs,  446  ;  of  infeds,  448. 

Milhpes  multiplies  by  fpontaneous  feparation,  36. 

Mind.  Its  faculties  the  chief  fource  of  animal  power,  99.  Minds 
of  brutes  poflefTed  of  original  qualities,  146.  The  loweft  fpe- 
cies  of  animals  are  endowed  with  minds,  147.  The  mind  of 
man  undergoes  changes,  259. 

Minerals,  no'analogy  between  them  and  vegetables,  2O. 

Modefty,  the  great  defence  and  ornament  of  women,  216.  Is  not 
confined  to  the  human  fpecies,  217. 

Moles,     Defcription  of  their  manners  and  operations,  286. 

Monkeys,     When  fleeping,  one  ads  as  a  centinel,  359. 

Motaciila.     See  titmoufe. 

Moths.  An  account  of  them.,  90.  Divided  into  two  kinds,  the 
fphinx  and  phalasna,  ibid.  All  of  them,  when  about  to  transform, 
fpin  cods  or  clues  of  filk,  269. 

Motion.  Spontaneous  motion,  125.  By  what  inftruments  it  is 
performed,  126.  Vital  and  involuntary  motions,  127.  Motions 
of  animals  proportioned  to  their  weight  and  ftru6hire,  128. 
Motion  gives  animation  and  vivacity  to  the  whole  fcene  of  Na- 
ture, ibid.  Deftruclive  animals  flower  in  their  motions  than 
the  weaker  kinds,  129.  Progreflive  motion  of  the  mufcle,  13°* 
Mdtions  of  the  razor  or  fpout-fifh,  131  ;  of  the  fcallop,  132  : 
•of  the  oyfter,  133  ;  of  the  fea-urchin,  ibid.  ;  of  the  medufa,  or 
fea-nettle,  134.  Motion  of  the  mafon-bee  fometimes  retro- 
grade, 135.  The  rate  at  which  found  moves,  158.  Children 
derive  great  happinefs  from  motion,  182. 

Mouflon,  the  original  ftock  of  the  fheep,  412. 

Multiplication,  The  hydra  of  Linnaeus  multiplies  by  fending  off1 
moots  from  its  body,  35.  The  bell-polypus  multiplies  by  fplit- 
ting  longitudinally,  ibid.  $  and  the  funnel-fhaped  polypus  by 
fplitting  tranfverfely,  36.  The  dart-millepes  likewife  multiplies 
by  fpontaneous  feparation,  ibid.  Puceron  multiplies  without 
impregnation,  38.  A  profufion  of  animal  life  one  great  inten- 
tion of  Nature,  352.  Noxious  multiplication  reftrained  by  va- 
rious caufes,  353. 

Mufca.      See  flies. 

Mufcles.    Their  progreflive  motion  defcribed,  130. 

Mufcles.     The  inftruments  of  animal  motion,  126. 

Mufical  ears.     See  ears. 

N 

Nature,  in  the  formation  of  animals  and  vegetables,  feems  to 
have  a&ed  upon  the  fame  general  plan,  18.     Her  intentions  in 
changing  forms,   258.     If  properly  underftood,  her  intentions 
are  never  wrong,  349.    Seems  to  pay  little  attention  to  indivi- 
duals, 


4§4  INDEX. 

duals,  but  uniformly  fupports  the  fpecies,  350.  Advantages 
derived  from  her  allowing  animals  to  prey  on  one  another,  ibid. 
&c.  It  givf's  rife  to  mutual  improvement,  351.  A  profufion 
ot  animal  life  ieems  to  be  a  general  intention  of  Nature,  352. 
There  is  a  wonderful  balance  in  the  fyftem  of  animal  deftruc- 
tion,  353*  Nature  obferves  a  uniform  gradation  of  beings,  463. 

Nerves.  A  fhort  defcription  of  them,  54.  The  fource  of  all  fen- 
fation  and  motion,  126,  150.  Their  papillae  the  immediate  in- 
ftruments  of  fenfation,  164. 

Nefts.  See  birds  and  habitations.  Penfile  nefts,  289.  Curious 
neft  of  the  tailor-bird,  ibid.  Cuckoo  makes  none,  290.  Nefts 
of  different  birds,  291.  Nefts  of  various  infecls,  293.  Wafp's 
neft  defcribed,  314.  Nefts  or  hills  of  the  termites,  323  ;  of  ca- 
terpillars, 381. 

Nettle.      Sea-nettle's  motions  extremely  flow,  134. 

Neuropterous  infects.     Defcription  of  them,  91. 

Nidification.      See  birds. 

Nofe.     Defcription  of  that  organ,   150. 

Nutrition.     See  food,  growth. 

Nymphs,     A  defcription  of  them,  265. 

O 

Oak.     Account  of  a  remarkable  one,  460. 

Ocean.     It  produces  the  largeft  animals  now  known,  79. 

Odours.  Thereafon  why  they  excite  the  fenfe  of  fmeiling,  151. 
The  particles  of  odorous  bodies  extremely  minute,  ibid. 

Oeftrus.     See  gad-fly. 

Orang-outang.  His  form  as  well  as  his  manners  make  the  near- 
eft  approach  to  thofe  of  man,  55.  Walks  creel,  62.  An  ac- 
count of^the  imitative  powers  of  what  is  called  the  larger  and 
fmaller  fpecies,  391.  Their  manners,  392,  &c.  Belong  not  to 
the  humankind,  394.  Nearly  allied  to  man,  391. 

Organs.  See  animals,  birds,  quadrupeds,  fifties,  plants,  and  ftruc- 
ture. 

Oftrich  vindicated  from  unnaturality,  142. 

Ox-eye.      See  titmoufe. 

Oxen  dull  and  phlegmatic  animals,  but  capable  of  inftruclion, 
407.  Much  changed  by  domeftication,  412. 

Oyfter.  Its  motions  defcribed,  133.  Is  endowed  with  fome  de- 
gree of  intelligence,  ibid. 

P. 

Pairing.     See  marriage.     Many  animals  pair,  250,  &c. 
Palm-tree.     Its  mode  of  culture  in  Arabia  no  proof  ot  the  fexes 

of  plants.     See  fexes. 
Palpi  of  infers  defcribed,  85. 
Papillae.     See  nerves.  v 

Papilio. 


INDEX.  485 

Papilio.     See  butterfly. 

Parental  aiTe&ion.     See  love. 

Pediculus.     See  loufe. 

Pelican.     Her  mode  of  (applying  her  young  with  drink,   202. 

Phalaena.     See  moth. 

Phryganae.     See  flies. 

Pies.     Their  neits  very  various,  288. 

Pilchards.      See  herrings. 

Plants.  Difficulty  of  diftinguiming  them  from  animals,  10.  De- 
finitions of  them  by  Jungius,  ibid,  j  by  Ludwig,  ibid.;  by 
Linnaeus,  ibid.  Examples  of  the  motions  of  plants,  12,  13. 
Their  whole  ftru&ure  may  be  confidered  as  a  ftomach  for  re-' 
ceiving  their  food,  15.  Many  of  them  have  the  power  of 
irritability,  17.  Between  vegetables  and  minerals  there  is 
hardly  any  analogy,  19,  20.  Analogies  between  animals  and 
plants,  originating  from  their  ftrucliure  and  organs,  21,  30. 
Sketch  of  the  ftruclure  of  plants,  25,  &c.  Their  ceconomy 
and  functions  are  refults  of  a  vafcular  texture,  26.  Analogies 
arifmg  from  their  growth  and  nourifhment,  30,  34.  Food  of 
plants  and  of  animals  compared,  31.  Analogies  between  the 
animal  and  vegetable  derived  from  their  diflemination  and  de- 
cav>  35?  &c-  Analogies  between  the  eggs  of  animals  and  the 
feeds  of  plants,  39.  Some  plants  may  be  confidered  as  vivi- 
parous, 41.  Plants  have  their  feafons  as  well  as  animals,  43. 
Are  all  fubjecl:  to  many  difeafes,  and  at  laft  to  individual  diflb- 
lution,  44.  Of  the  fuppofed  fexes  of  plants,  223.  See  fexes. 
Pollen  or  farina  of  plants  fuppofed  to  be  analogous  to  the  male 
organs  of  generation,  225.  New  varieties  of  plants  often  pro- 
ceed from  accidental  caufes,  233.  Plants,  as  well  as  animals, 
undergo  transformations,  274,  275.  See  transformations. 
Thofe  which  grow  quickly  foonperifh,  453.  Their  longevity, 
460. 

Pollen.     See  plants,  and  fexes. 

Polypus.  Defcription  of  its  ftru&ure  and  mode  of  multiplying, 
23.  When  cut  to  pieces  in  any  direction,  each  fe&ion  becomes 
a  perfect  animal,  24.  One  fpecies  may  be  engrafted  upon  ano- 
ther, ibid.  Some  polypi  multiply  by  fplitting  longitudinally, 
and  others  tranfverfelyj  35.  Connects  the  animarto  the  ve- 
getable kingdom,  467. 

Probofcis  of  infects  defcribed,  87. 

Propolis,  or  bee-glue.      See  bees. 

Puberty.  This  period  of  life  arrives  later,  or  more  early,  accord- 
ing to  the  difference  of  fpecies,  30.  Of  the  puberty  of  animals 
in  general,  238.  Changes  produced  by  it,  239.  Females  ar- 
rive fooner  at  that  period  than  males,  240.  All  animals  under  - 
go  changes  at  the  age  of  puberty,  241. 

Pucerons. 


486  INDEX. 

Pucerons.  Some  fpecies  are  both  viviparous  and  oviparous,  36. 
Can  produce  without  impregnation,  37.  Differences  between 
the  males  and  females,  220.  Devoured  by  numberlefs  enemies, 

34°- 
Pulex.     See  flea. 

Q. 

Quadrupeds.  Their  ftructure,  55.  The  fimilarity  of  their 
ftructure  and  organs  to  thofe  of  man,  56.  Of  the  carnivorous 
kinds,  58.  Of  the  herbivorous,  59.  Few  quadrupeds  pair, 
254.  Undergo  changes  of  form  after  birth,  260.  Their 
mental  powers  likewife  change,  ibid.  Some  of  them  conftruct 
habitations,  280.  Of  carnivorous  quadrupeds,  339.  Their 
difcriminating  characters,  416.  •  Some  of  them  migrate,  440. 
Of  their  longevity,  456. 

Quails.     Of  their  migration,  423. 


Rapacious.     See   carnivorous. 

Rats  of  Kamtfchatka.     Their  artifices  and  manners,  366. 

Ravens.  Their  mode  of  breaking  fhell-fiihes,  368.  Their  lon- 
gevity, 456. 

Razor-fifh.     See  fpout-fifli. 

Rein-deer,  the  chief  food  of  the  Laplanders,    197. 

Refpiration.  Air  necefTary  to  the  exiftence  of  all  animal  and  ve- 
getable bodies,  101.  The  mode  in  which  refpiration  is  car- 
ried on  by  man  and  the  larger  land  animals,  ibid.  Dr.  Craw- 
ford has  rendered  it  probable  that  refpiration  is  the  caufe  of  ani- 
mal heat,  ibid.  Connected  with  the  circulation  of  the  blood, 
103.  Commences  inftantly  after  birth,  and  continues  during 
life,  104.  Of  laughing,  105.  Of  weeping,  106.  Many 
fecond^ry  advantages  derived  from  refpiration,  ibid.  Birds  re- 
fpire  by  the  bones,  and  almoft  every  part  of  the  body,  as  well 
as  by  the  lungs,  107.  Refpiration  of  fifties,  112.  Refpira- 
tion of  infects,  113. 

Retina.  External  objects  painted  on  it  in  an  inverted  position, 
168.  Why  objects  are  feen  erect  notwithftanding  the  inverfion 
of  the  pictures,  ibid.  169.  Why  vifionis  fingle  though  a  pic- 
ture is  painted  on  each  eye,  171. 

Roebuck.     His  artifices  and  manners,  362. 

S 

Saliva,  a  powerful  folvent,   154. 
Salmons.     Of  their  migrations,  &c.  442. 
Scale.     Of  the  progreflive  fcale  of  beings,  463,  &c. 
Scallop.     Its  motions  defcribed,   132. 

Scarabzei,  or  the  beetle-tribe  of  infects,  an  account  of  them,  88. 

Scorpion. 


1     N    D    E     X.  487 

Scorpion.     Account  of  it,  96. 

Sea-nettle  capable  of  being  ingrafted,  44. 

Seal.     Sketch  of  his  manners,  66. 

Seafons.     See  love. 

Seeds.     Analogies  between  them  and  the  eggs  of  animals,  40. 

Seeing.     See  fenfes. 

Senfation  implies  the  perception  of  pleafure  and  pain.  May  b« 
fufpended  without  death,  28.  See  fenfes.  Theory  of  fenfation, 
162. 

Senfes.  Fifties  endowed  with  the  fenfe  of  hearing,  79.  Of  the 
fenfes  in  general,  149.  Of  the  fenfe  of  Smelling,  150.  Men, 
as  well  as  brutes,  aflifted  in  the  felection  of  food  by  the  fenfe 
of  fmelling,  151.  Mofl  odours  productive  either  of  pleafure 
or  pain,  ibid.  The  fenfe  of  fmelling  in  fome  animals  remarka- 
bly acute,  153.  Of  tafting,  154.  The  organs  of  tafte  and 
fmelling  aflift  each  other,  ibid.  Senfe  of  tafting  comparatively 
grofs,  ibid.  Senfe  of  hearing,  156.  The  pleafures  derived 
from  it,  159.  Senfe  of  touch,  162.  Senfe  of  feeing,  165; 
conveys  no  idea  of  diftance,  171.  Errors  of  vifion  corrected 
by  touch,  ibid.  Of  the  fenfe  of  fmelling  alone,  174;  of  hear- 
ing alone,  175  ;  of  fmelling  and  hearing  united,  ibid.  ;  of  tafte 
alone,  and  united  with  fmelling  and  hearing,  176;  of  fight  a- 
lone,  ibid.  ;  of  fight  united  with  fmell,  hearing,  and  tafte,  ibid. ; 
of  touching  alone,  177;  of  touch  united  with  fmelling,  179  ; 
of  hearing,  tafte,  and  touch  united,  ibid.  Of  fight  united  with 
all  the  other  fenfe?,  180. 

Sepia.     See  cuttle- fiih. 

Serpents  caft  their  fkins  annually,  261. 

Sexes.  Of  the  fexes  of  animals,  215.  Their  intercourfe  not  al- 
ways neceiTary  for  multiplication,  218.  See  multiplication. 
Caterpillars  are  of  no  fex,  218.  Among  the  larger  animals, 
the  difference  of  fize  between  males  and  females  is  not  confide  - 
rable,  ibid.;  but,  among  infects,  the  difference  often  great,  ibid. 
219.  Of  the  fuppofed  fexes  of  plants,  223.  The  arguments 
employed  to  fupport  the  fexes  of  plants  are  entirely  analogical, 
ibid.  Thefe  analogies  fhown  to  be  without  foundation,  224. 
Some  of  them  ridiculous,  ibid.  The  moft  plaufible  argument 
in  fupport  of  vegetable  fexes  derived  from  the  culture  of  the 
date-bearing  palm,  226.  This  circumftance  brings  no  aid  to 
the  fexualift,  ibid.  Mylius's  experiment  on  the  Berlin  palm 
imperfect  and  inconclufive,  ibid.  227.  Sexualifts  have  recourfe 
to  the  winds  and  to  infects  for  the  impregnation  of  certain  plants, 
227.  This  notion  refuted,  228.  Argument  from  new  varie- 
ties examined,  230.  Dr.  Hope's  experiments  on  the  lychnis 
dioica  examined,  231.  Spallanzani's  experiments  on  the  fexes 
of  plants,  235, — 238.  Changes  produced  in  animals  by  puber- 
ty* 


488  INDEX. 

ty,  239.     The  male  bees  impregnate   the  eggs  after  they  afg 
depofited  in  the  cells,   311. 

Sheep  aflbciate,  and  defend  each  other,  388.     Their  origin,  412. 

Showers  of  blood  accounted  for,  271. 

Silk-worms.      See  worms  and  caterpillars. 

Skeletons,  of  all  quadrupeds,  when  raifed  on  their  hind-legs,  have 
a  great  refemblance  to  thofe  of  man,  56. 

Sleep,   of  plants,   14. 

Smeathman.     His  account  of  the  termites  or  wood-ants,  323. 

Smelling.      See  fenfes. 

Snails.     Their  mode  of  refpiring,  120. 

Society.  Not  confined  to  the  human  fpecies,  371.  Its  origin/ 
ibid.  The  aiTociating  principle  is  inftinctive,  372.  Its  advan- 
tages, ibid.  Gives  rife  to  many  virtues  and  fources  of  happi- 
nef?,  373.  Its  di  fad  vantages,  374.  Without  afiociation,  men 
could  perform  no  extenfive  operations,  375.  Society  of  the 
beavers,  ibid.  ;  of  pairing  birds,  376;  of  the  honey-bees,  377  ; 
of  the  common  caterpillars,  381  ;  of  the  proceffionary  caterpil- 
lars, 383.  Some  caterpillars  are  republicans,  384.  Society  of 
ants,  386  ;  of  gregarious  animals  who  carry  on  no  common 
operations,  387. 

Sound.  Its  medium  and  caufes,  156.  The  celerity  of  its  moti- 
on, 158.  Augmented  by  reflection,  ibid.  Its  modifications,  ibid. 

Spallanzani.  Account  of  his  experiments  upon  digertion,  206* 
His  experiments  on  the  fexes  of  plants,  233. 

Sparrows  of  great  ufe  by  devouring  numbers  of  caterpillars,  355, 

Speech.     See  language. 

Sphinx.      See  moth. 

Spiders.  Their  ftru&ure  and  manners,  95.  When  terrified  fi- 
mulate  death,  141.  Their  attachment  to  their  young,  247. 
Moft  voracious  animals,  344.  Some  of  them  furvive  the  win- 
ter, 370. 

Spider-fly.      See  flies,  and  growth. 

Spout-firfi.  Its  motions  defcribed,  131.  Comes  above  the  fand 
upon  putting  fait  upon  the  mouth  of  its  habitation,  132. 

Stag.     His  artifices  in  efcaping  the  dogs,  359.     Form  herds,  387, 

Stevens  (Drj.  His  experiments  on  digeftion  performed  by  means 
of  a  German  who  was  in  the  habit  of  fwallowing  ftones,  212, 

Stigmata  of  infects  defcribed,  and  their  ufes,   114. 

Stomach.  Every  part  of  vegetables  may  be  confidered  as  a  fto- 
mach,  15.  In  carnivorous  animals,  the  ftomach  is  proportion- 
ally fmali,  58.  Its  juice  diflblves  all  kinds  of  victuals,  206. 
Its  great  comminuting  force  in  certain  birds,  207,  &c.  In 
man  and  quadrupeds,  the  ftomach  feems  not  to  a£t  upon  its 
contents,  which  are  totally  diffolved  by  the  gaftric  juice,  212. 
See  gaftric  juice.  After  death,  the  gaftric  juice  diflblves  the 
ftomachj  214. 

Storks 


INDEX.  489 

Storks  clear  Egypt  of  ferpents,  frogs,  mice,  &c.   354. 

Structure  and  organs.  Their  connedtion  with  manners  and  dif- 
pofitions,  55,  58,  88.  Structure  of  quadrupeds  has  a  great 
refemblance  lo  that  of  man,  56.  Structure  of  birds,  71.  Struc- 
ture of  fifties,  77.  Structure  of  infects,  82. 

Swallow.  A  curious  inftincl:  of  it,  140.  Swallow's  nefts,  292. 
Of  their  migration  and  torpidity,  422,  &c.  Different  opini- 
ons on  this  Subject  examined,  428.  Could  not  pofiibly  exift 
under  water,  429. 

Swans.     Their  longevity,  455- 

Sword-fifh  often  kills  the  whale,  357. 

T 

Tadpole.     See  frog?. 

Tailed  men  have  no  exiftence,  466. 

Tafte.  See  fenfes.  The  inftruments  and  caufes  of  the  fenfation 
of  tailing,  154.  Tafte  various  in  individuals  of  the  fame  fpe- 
cies,  155. 

Tailor-bird.     Defcription  of  its  wonderful  neft,  289. 

Termites.  Mr.  Smeathman's  defcription  of  their  firigular  ope- 
rations, 323.  Defcription  of  thefe  animals,  324.  Undergo 
great  changes  in  form,  ibid,  &c.  Wonderful  prolific  powers 
of  the  females,  326.  Their  nefts  or  hills  defcribed,  327.  Of 
their  royal  chamber,  328.  Of  their  nurferies,  329.  Of  their 
magazines,  ibid.  Of  their  fubterraneous  pafTages,  331.  Of 
their  warlike  ciifpofitions,  333.  Repair  their  habitations,  ibid. 

Tiger.     His  difpofitions  are  grofsly  ferocious,  340. 

Titmoufe.     Defcription  of  its  neft,  289. 

Toads.  Inftances  of  their  being  found  alive  in  the  heart  of  trees, 
and  inclofed  in  folid  ftones,  122.  Their  longevity,  458. 

Tongue  and  palate,  the  principal  inftruments  of  the  fenfe  of  taft- 
ing,  154. 

Touch.     See  fenfes. 

Tracheae  of  infects  defcribed,  and  their  ufcs,  114. 

Transformations.  Every  animal  undergoes  changes,  258,  &c. 
Transformation  of  frogs,  261.  Cruftaceous  animals  caft  their 
fhells  annually,  ibid.  Serpents  annually  caft  their  fkins,  ibid. 
Of  the  transformations  of  infects,  262.  Transformation  of 
the  filk-worm,  ibid ;  of  other  caterpillars,  ibid,  The  internal 
parts,  as  well  as  the  external  form,  of  winged  infects  undergo 
confiderable  changes,  266.  Spider-fly  transformed  into  a  chry- 
falis  before  efcaping  the  belly  of  its  mother,  ibid.  The  behavi- 
our of  different  caterpillars  when  about  to  transform,  267. 
Transformation  of  infers  is  only  the  throwing  off  of  tempo- 
rary coverings,  270.  Plants,  as  well  as  animals,  undergo  trans- 
formations, 274.  Intentions  of  Nature  in  changing  forms,  277. 

Trcchus  deftroys  numbers  of  (hell-fifties,  356. 

Turkey.     The  great  comminuting  force  of  its  ftomach,  207. 

Qqq  U 


490  INDEX. 

U 

Urchin.     Motions  of  the  fea-urchin  defcribed,  183. 

V 

Vacuum.     Sounds  cannot  be  propagated  through  it,   157. 

Vegetables.      See  plants. 

Vermes,      See  worms. 

Vis  inertia  defined,    126. 

Vifion.     See  eves  and  retina. 

W 

War.  Man  not  the  only  animal  that  makes  war  with  his  own 
fpecies,  347. 

Wafps.  Solitary  wafp  digs  holes  in  the  fand,  where  fhe  depofits 
her  eggs,  14.0.  Feed  their  young  by  difgorging  like  the  pigeon, 
247.  Their  manners  and  operations,  314.  Their  cells  com- 
pofed  of  paper,  315.  Defcription  of  their  neft,  ibid.  Their 
manner  of  building,  317.  Republics  of  wafps  confift  of  males, 
females,  and  neuters,  318.  Defcription  of  the  different  kinds, 
319.  MaiFacre  their  youns;,  349. 

Wax.     Bees  wax  a  refult  of  a  digeftive  procefs,   305. 

Weeping,  how  performed,  and  its  effects,  105.  Not  peculiar 
to  man,  ibid. 

Whales  often  killed  by  the  fword-fifh,  357. 

Winds.  Suppofed  to  impregnate  certain  plants,  227.  This  no- 
tion refuted,  ibid.  258. 

Wings.  No  animal,  except  infects,  have  more  than  two,  84. 
Thofe  of  infe&s  made  the  foundation  of  a  methodical  diftribu- 
tion,  87. 

Wolf.     His  difpofitions  are  fierce  and  rapacious,   341. 

Women.  Their  texture  more  lax  than  that  of  men,  215. 
Their  minds  are  likewife  more  timid,  216.  Social  intercourfe 
with  them  foftens  the  difpofitions  of  men,  ibid.  Modefty  the 
great  ornament  of  women,  ibid.  Carnivorous  quadrupeds 
not  fo  apt  to  devour  women  as  men,  217.  See  multiplication 
and  fexes. 

Wood-ants.     See  ants  and  termites. 

Woodpecker.      Some  account  of  it,    367. 

Worms.  Account  of  thefe  infedls,  96.  Of  the  hair-worm, 
ibid.  Of  the  earth  -worm,  ibid.  Rat-tailed  worms,  their 
mode  of  refpiring  air,  116.  In  fome  worms,  the  rapidity  of 
their  growth  is  remarkable,  205.  Account  of  the  male  and 
female  glow-worm,  219.  Silk- worms  fpin  pods  before  their 
transformation  into  flies,  262.  See  caterpillars.  Inflances  of 
feveral  worms  proceeding  from  one  egg,  268.  The  manner 
in  which  the  (ilk- worms  fpin  their  cord  or  clue,  269. 


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